ubiquitous computing

Ubiquitous ComputingSmart Devices, Environmentsand Interactions

Stefan Poslad

Queen Mary, University of London, UK

Technische Universitat DarmstadtFACHSEREiCH liSSFORMATIK

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Contents

List of Figures xix

List of Tables xxiii

Preface xxv

Acknowledgements xxvii

1 Ubiquitous Computing: Basics and Vision 1

1.1 Living in a Digital World 11.1.1 Chapter Overview 21.1.2 Illustrative Ubiquitous Computing Applications 2

1.1.2.1 Personal Memories 31.1.2.2 Adaptive Transport Scheduled Service 51.1.2.3 Foodstuff Management 51.1.2.4 Utility Regulation 6

1.1.3 Holistic Framework for UbiCom: Smart DEI 11.2 Modelling the Key Ubiquitous Computing Properties 8

1.2.1 Core Properties of UbiCom Systems 91.2.2 Distributed ICT Systems 9

1.2.2.1 Networked ICT Devices 101.2.2.2 Transparency and Openness 10

1.2.3 Implicit Human-Computer Interaction (iHCI) 111.2.3.1 The Calm Computer 111.2.3.2 Implicit Versus Explicit Human-Computer Interaction 121.2.3.3 Embodied Reality versus Virtual, Augmented and Mediated Reality 12

1.2.4 Context-Awareness 131.2.4.1 Three Main Types of Environment Context: Physical, User, Virtual 141.2.4.2 User-Awareness 141.2.4.3 Active Versus Passive Context-Awareness 15

1.2.5 Autonomy 151.2.5.1 Reducing Human Interaction 161.2.5.2 Easing System Maintenance Versus Self-Maintaining Systems 16

Contents

1.2.6 Intelligence 171.2.7 Taxonomy of UbiCom Properties 17

1.3 Ubiquitous System Environment Interaction 221.3.1 Human-ICT Device Interaction (HCI) 241.3.2 ICT Device to Physical World Interaction (CPI) 25

1.4 Architectural Design for UbiCom Systems: Smart DEI Model 261.4.1 Smart Devices 27

1.4.1.1 Weiser's ICT Device Forms: Tabs, Pads and Boards 281.4.1.2 Extended Forms for ICT Devices: Dust, Skin and Clay 281.4.1.3 Mobility 291.4.1.4 Volatile Service Access 291.4.1.5 Situated and Self-Aware 30

1.4.2 Smart Environments 301.4.2.1 Tagging, Sensing and Controlling Environments 311.4.2.2 Embedded Versus Untethered 311.4.2.3 Device Sizes 32

1.4.3 Smart Interaction 321.4.3.1 Basic Interaction 321.4.3.2 Smart Interaction 33

1.5 Discussion 341.5.1 Interlinking System Properties, Environments and Designs 341.5.2 Common Myths about Ubiquitous Computing 351.5.3 Organisation of the Smart DEI Approach 37

Exercises 38References 39

2 Applications and Requirements 41; 2.1 Introduction 41

2.1.1 Overview 412.2 Example Early UbiCom Research Projects 41

2.2.1 Smart Devices: CCI 422.2.1.1 Smart Boards, Pads and Tabs 422.2.1.2 Active Badge, Bat and Floor 42

2.2.2 Smart Environments: CPI and CCI 432.2.2.1 Classroom 2000 432.2.2.2 Smart Space and Meeting Room 432.2.2.3 Interactive Workspaces and iRoom 442.2.2.4 Cooltown 442.2.2.5 EasyLiving and SPOT 452.2.2.6 HomeLab and Ambient Intelligence 46

2.2.3 Smart Devices: CPI 462.2.3.1 Unimate and MH-1 Robots 462.2.3.2 Smart Dust and TinyOS 47

2.2.4 Smart Devices: iHCI and HP! 482.2.4.1 Calm Computing 482.2.4.2 Things That Think and Tangible Bits 482.2.4.3 DataTiles 492.2.4.4 Ambient Wood 502.2.4.5 WearComp and WearCam 502.2.4.6 Cyborg 1.0 and 2.0 52

2.2.5 Other UbiCom Projects 52

Contents ix

2.3 Everyday Applications in the Virtual, Human and Physical World 532.3.1 Ubiquitous Networks of Devices: CCI 532.3.2 Human-Computer Interaction 54

2.3.2.1 Ubiquitous Audio-Video Content Access 542.3.2.2 Ubiquitous Information Access and Ebooks 552.3.2.3 Universal Local Control of ICT Systems 562.3.2.4 User-Awareness and Personal Spaces 58

2.3.3 Human-to-Human Interaction (HHI) Applications , 582.3.3.1 Transaction-based M-Commerce and U-Commerce Services 592.3.3.2 Enhancing the Productivity of Mobile Humans 592.3.3.3 Care in the Community 60

2.3.4 Human-Physical World-Computer Interaction (HPI) and (CPI) 612.3.4.1 Physical Environment Awareness 612.3.4.2 (Physical) Environment Control 612.3.4.3 Smart Utilities 622.3.4.4 Smart Buildings and Home Automation 622.3.4.5 Smart Living Environments and Smart Furniture 632.3.4.6 Smart Street Furniture 652.3.4.7 Smart Vehicles, Transport and Travel 652.3.4.8 Pervasive Games and Social Physical Spaces 66

2.4 Discussion 672.4.1 Achievements from Early Projects and Status Today 67

2.4.1.1 Smart Devices 672.4.1.2 Smart Physical World Environments 682.4.1.3 Context-Awareness and Service Discovery 692.4.1.4 Wearable Smart Devices and Implants 69


3 Smart Devices and Services 753.1 Introduction 75

3.1.1 Chapter Overview 753.1.2 Smart Device and Service Characteristics 753.1.3 Distributed System Viewpoints 113.1.4 Abstraction Versus Virtualisation 78

3.2 Service Architecture Models 803.2.1 Partitioning and Distribution of Service Components 803.2.2 Multi-tier Client Service Models 81

3.2.2.1 Distributed Data Storage 823.2.2.2 Distributed Processing 823.2.2.3 Client-Server Design 833.2.2.4 Proxy-based Service Access 84

3.2.3 Middleware 853.2.4 Service Oriented Computing (SOC) 863.2.5 Grid Computing 873.2.6 Peer-to-Peer Systems 883.2.7 Device Models 91

3.3 Service Provision Life-Cycle 913.3.1 Network Discovery 923.3.2 Service Announcement, Discovery, Selection and Configuration 93

Contents

3.3.3

3.3.4

3.4 Virtu;3.4.13.4.23.4.33.4.43.4.53.4.6

ExercisesReferences

3.3.2.1 Web Service Discovery3.3.2.2 Semantic Web and Semantic Resource DiscoveryService Invocation3.3.3.1 Distributed Processes3.3.3.2 Asynchronous (MOM) Versus Synchronous (RPC)

Communication Models3.3.3.3 Reliable versus Unreliable Communication3.3.3.4 Caches, Read-Ahead and Delayed Writes3.3.3.5 On-Demand Service Access3.3.3.6 Event-Driven Architectures (EDA)3.3.3.7 Shared Data Repository3.3.3.8 Enterprise Service Bus (ESB) Model3.3.3.9 Volatile Service InvocationService Composition3.3.4.1 Service Interoperability

1 Machines and Operating SystemsVirtual MachinesBIOSMulti-Tasking Operating Systems (MTOS)Process ControlMemory ManagementInput and Output

Smart Mobiles, Cards and Device Networks4.1 Introduction

4.1.1 Chapter Overview4.2 Smart Mobile Devices, Users, Resources and Code

4.2.1 Mobile Seryice Design. 4.2.1.1 SMS and Mobile Web Services

4.2.1.2 Java VM and J2ME4.2.1.3 .NETCF

4.2.2 Mobile Code4.2.3 Mobile Devices and Mobile Users

4.3 Operating Systems for Mobile Computers and Communicator Devices4.3.1 Microkernel Designs4.3.2 Mobility Support4.3.3 Resource-Constrained Devices4.3.4 Power Management

4.3.4.1 Low Power CPUs4.3.4.2 Application Support

4.4 Smart Card Devices4.4.1 Smart Card OS4.4.2 Smart Card Development

4.5 Device Networks4.5.1 HAVi.HESandXIO4.5.2 Device Discovery4.5.3 OSGi

ExercisesReferences

95959596

97999910010110310310410510610610610710810910

12

15151515161719120121122123123123124125125126126127128128129129131132133

Contents

Human-Computer Interaction 1355.1 Introduction 135

5.1.1 Chapter Overview 1355.1.2 Explicit HCI: Motivation and Characteristics 1365.1.3 Complexity of Ubiquitous Explicit HCI 1365.1.4 Implicit HCI: Motivation and Characteristics 137

5.2 User Interfaces and Interaction for Four Widely Used Devices 1385.2.1 Diversity of ICT Device Interaction 1385.2.2 Personal Computer Interface 1395.2.3 Mobile Hand-Held Device Interfaces 140

5.2.3.1 Handling Limited Key Input: Multi-Tap, T9, Fastap, Softkeys and Soft Keyboard 140

5.2.3.2 Handling Limited Output 1415.2.4 Games Console Interfaces and Interaction 1425.2.5 Localised Remote Control: Video Devices 143

5.3 Hidden UI Via Basic Smart Devices 1435.3.1 Multi-Modal Visual Interfaces 1445.3.2 Gesture Interfaces 1455.3.3 Reflective Versus Active Displays 1475.3.4 Combining Input and Output User Interfaces 148

5.3.4.1 Touchscreens 1495.3.4.2 Tangible Interfaces 1495.3.4.3 Organic Interfaces 150

5.3.5 Auditory Interfaces 1515.3.6 Natural Language Interfaces 151

5.4 Hidden Ul Via Wearable and Implanted Devices 1525.4.1 Posthuman Technology Model 1525.4.2 Virtual Reality and Augmented Reality 1525.4.3 Wearable Computer Interaction 153

5.4.3.1 Head(s)-Up Display (HUD) 154.5.4.3.2 Eyetap . 1545.4.3.3 Virtual Retinal Display (VRD) 1545.4.3.4 Clothes as Computers 155

5.4.4 Computer Implants and Brain Computer Interfaces 1555.4.5 Sense-of Presence and Telepresence 157

5.5 Human-Centred Design (HCD) 1575.5.1 Human-Centred Design Life-Cycle 1585.5.2 Methods to Acquire User Input and to Build Used Models 1595.5.3 Defining the Virtual and Physical Environment Use Context 1605.5.4 Defining the Human Environment Use Context and Requirements 160

5.5.4.1 User Characteristics 1605.5.5 Interaction Design 161

5.5.5.1 Conceptual Models and Mental Models 1625.5.6 Evaluation 162

5.6 User Models: Acquisition and Representation 1635.6.1 Indirect User Input and Modelling 1645.6.2 Direct User Input and Modelling 1645.6.3 User Stereotypes 1655.6.4 Modelling Users'Planned Tasks and Goals 1655.6.5 Multiple User Tasks and Activity-Based Computing 1665.6.6 Situation Action Versus Planned Action Models 167

Contents

5.7 iHCI Design 1675.7.1 iHCI Model Characteristics 1675.7.2 User Context-Awareness 1685.7.3 More Intuitive and Customised Interaction 1685.7.4 Personalisation 1695.7.5 Affective Computing: Interactions Using Users' Emotional Context 1715.7.6 Design Heuristics and Patterns 171


Tagging, Sensing and Controlling 1796.1 Introduction 179

6.1.1 Chapter Overview 1806.2 Tagging the Physical World 180

6.2.1 Life-Cycle for Tagging Physical Objects 1816.2.2 Tags: Types and Characteristics 1816.2.3 Physical and Virtual Tag Management 1836.2.4 RFID Tags 183

6.2.4.1 Active RFID Tags 1856.2.4.2 Passive RFID Tags 185

6.2.5 Personalised and Social Tags 1866.2.6 Micro Versus Macro Tags 187

6.3 Sensors and Sensor Networks 1876.3.1 Overview of Sensor Net Components and Processes 1876.3.2 Sensor Electronics 1896.3.3 Physical Network: Environment, Density and Transmission 1916.3.4 Data Network: Addressing and Routing 192

6.3.4.1 Sensor Networks Versus Ad Hoc Networks 1936.3.5 Data Processing: Distributed Data Storage and Data Queries 193

6.4 Micro Actuation and Sensing: MEMS 1946.4.1 Fabrication ' 1956.4.2 Micro-Actuators 1956.4.3 Micro-Sensors 1966.4.4 Smart Surfaces, Skin, Paint, Matter and Dust 1976.4.5 Downsizing to Nanotechnology and Quantum Devices 198

6.5 Embedded Systems and Real-Time Systems 1996.5.1 Application-Specific Operating Systems (ASOS) 2006.5.2 Real-Time Operating Systems for Embedded Systems 201

6.6 Control Systems (for Physical World Tasks) 2026.6.1 Programmable Controllers 2026.6.2 Simple PID-Type Controllers 2036.6.3 More Complex Controllers 203

6.7 Robots 2046.7.1 Robot Manipulators 2056.7.2 Mobile Robots 2066.7.3 Biologically Inspired Robots 2066.7.4 Nanobots 2076.7.5 Developing UbiCom Robot Applications 207


Contents xiii

7 Context-Aware Systems 2137.1 Introduction 213

7.1.1 Chapter Overview 2147.1.2 Context-Aware Applications 214

7.2 Modelling Context-Aware Systems 2167.2.1 Types of Context 2167.2.2 Context Creation and Context Composition 2187.2.3 Context-Aivare Adaptation 2197.2.4 Environment Modelling 2217.2.5 Context Representation 2217.2.6 A Basic Architecture 2227.2.7 Challenges in Context-Awareness 225

7.3 Mobility Awareness 2277.3.1 Call Routing for Mobile Users 2277.3.2 Mobile Phone Location Determination 2277.3.3 Mobile User Awareness as an Example of Composite

Context-A wareness 2287.3.4 Tourism Services for Mobile Users 228

7.4 Spatial Awareness 2297.4.1 Spatial Context Creation 230

7.4.1.1 Spatial Acquisition 2301AA.2 Location Acquisition 231

7.4.2 Location and Other Spatial Abstractions 2337.4.3 User Context Creation and Context-Aware Adaptation 233

7.4.3.1 Cartography: Adapting Spatial Viewpoints toDifferent User Contexts 233

7.4.3.2 Geocoding: Mapping Location Contexts toUser Contexts 234

7.4.4 Spatial Context Queries and Management: GIS 2347.5 Temporal Awareness: Coordinating and Scheduling 235

7.5.1 Clock Synchronization: Temporal Context Creation 2357.5.2 Temporal Models and Abstractions 2367.5.3 Temporal Context Management and Adaptation to

User Contexts 2377.6 ICT System Awareness 238

7.6.1 Context-Aware Presentation and Interaction at the UI 2387.6.1.1 Acquiring the UI Context 2387.6.1.2 Content Adaptation " 239

7.6.2 Network-Aware Service Adaptation 240Exercises 242References 242

8 Intelligent Systems (IS) 245With Patricia Charlton8.1 Introduction 245

8.1.1 Chapter Overview 2468.2 Basic Concepts 246

8.2.1 Types of Intelligent Systems 2468.2.2 Types of Environment for Intelligent Systems 2478.2.3 Use of Intelligence in Ubiquitous Computing 248

Contents

8.3 IS Architectures 2498.3.1 What a Model Knows Versus How it is Used 249

8.3.1.1 Types of Architecture Model 2508.3.1.2 Unilateral Versus Bilateral System Environment Models 2518.3.1.3 Model Representations 2528.3.1.4 How System Models are Acquired and Adapt 252

8.3.2 Reactive IS Models 2528.3.3 Environment Model-based IS 2548.3.4 Goal-based IS 2558.3.5 Utility-based IS 2568.3.6 Learning-based IS 256

8.3.6.1 Machine Learning Design 2578.3.7 Hybrid IS 2588.3.8 Knowledge-based (KB) IS 260

8.3.8.1 Production or Rule-based KB System 2608.3.8.2 Blackboard KB System 261

8.3.9 IS Models Applied to UbiCom Systems 2618.4 Semantic KB IS 263

8.4.1 Knowledge Representation 2638.4.2 Design Issues 265

8.4.2.1 Open World Versus Closed World Semantics 2658.4.2.2 Knowledge Life-cycle and Knowledge Management 2668.4.2.3 Creating Knowledge 2668.4.2.4 Knowledge Deployment and Maintaining Knowledge 2678.4.2.5 Design Issues for UbiCom Use 267

8.5 Classical Logic IS 2688.5.1 Propositioned and Predicate Logic 2688.5.2 Reasoning 2698.5.3 Design Issues 270

8.6 Soft Computing IS Models 2718.6.1 Probabilistic Networks 2718.6.2 Fuzzy Logic 272

8.7 IS System Operations 2728.7.1 Searching 2728.7.2 Classical (Deterministic) Planning 21A8.7.3 Non-Deterministic Planning 275

Exercises 276References - 276

Intelligent System Interaction 279With Patricia Charlton9.1 Introduction 279

9.1.1 Chapter Overview 2799.2 Interaction Multiplicity 279

9.2.1 P2P Interaction Between Multiple Senders and Receivers 2819.2.1.1 Unknown Sender and Malicious Senders 2819.2.1.2 Unknown Receivers 2829.2.1.3 Too Many Messages 282

9.2.2 Interaction Using Mediators 2829.2.2.1 Shared Communication Resource Access 2839.2.2.2 Shared Computation Resource Access 283

Contents

9.2.2.3 Mediating Between Requesters and Providers 2849.2.3 Interaction Using Cooperative Participants 286

9.2.3.1 Coordination . 2879.2.3.2 Coordination Using Norms and Electronic Institutions 2899.2.3.3 Hierarchical and Role-based Organisational Interaction 290

9.2.4 Interaction with Self-interested Participants 2919.2.4.1 Market-based Interaction and Auctions 2929.2.4.2 Negotiation and Agreements 2939.2.4.3 Consensus-based Agreements 295

9.3 Is Interaction Design 2959.3.1 Designing System Interaction to be More Intelligent 2969.3.2 Designing Interaction Between Individual Intelligent Systems 2979.3.3 Interaction Protocol Design 297

9.3.3.1 Semantic or Knowledge-Sharing Protocols 2989.3.3.2 Agent Communication Languages and Linguistic-based

Protocols 3009.3.4 Further Examples of the Use of Interaction Protocols 3029.3.5 Multi-Agent Systems 303

9.3.5.1 ACL and Agent Platform Design 3049.3.5.2 Multi-Agent System Application Design 305

9.4 Some Generic Intelligent Interaction Applications 3069.4.1 Social Networking and Media Exchange 3079.4.2 Recommender and Referral Systems 308

9.4.2.1 Recommender Systems 3089.4.2.2 Content-based Recommendations 3089.4.2.3 Collaborative Filtering 309

9.4.3 Pervasive Work Flow Management for People 3099.4.4 Trust Management 309


10 Autonomous Systems and Artificial Life 31710.1 Introduction 317

10.1.1 Chapter Overview 31710.2 Basic Autonomous Intra-Acting Systems 318

10.2.1 Types of Autonomous System 31810.2.1.1 Autonomous Intelligent Systems 31910.2.1.2 Limitation of Autonomous Systems 319

10.2.2 Self* Properties of Intra-Action 32010.3 Reflective and Self-Aware Systems 322

10.3.1 Self-Awareness 32210.3.2 Self-Describing and Self-Explaining Systems 32310.3.3 Self-Modifying Systems Based Upon Reflective

Computation 32510.4 Self-Management and Autonomic Computing 326

10.4.1 Autonomic Computing Design 32810.4.2 Autonomic Computing Applications 33010.4.3 Modelling and Management Self-Star Systems 331

10.5 Complex Systems 33210.5.1 Self-Organization and Interaction 33210.5.2 Self-Creation and Self-Replication 335

xvi Contents

10.6 Artificial Life 33610.6.1 Finite State Automata Models 33610.6.2 Evolutionary Computing 337


11 Ubiquitous Communication 34311.1 Introduction 343

11.1.1 Chapter O verview 34411.2 Audio Networks 344

11.2.1 PSTN Voice Networks 34411.2.2 Intelligent Networks and IP Multimedia Subsystems 34511.2.3 A DLS Broadband 34611.2.4 Wireless Telecoms Networks 34611.2.5 Audio Broadcast (Radio Entertainment) Networks 347

11.3 Data Networks 34711.3.1 Network Protocol Suites 34811.3.2 Addressing 34811.3.3 Routing and Internetworking 349

11.4 Wireless Data Networks 35011.4.1 Types of Wireless Network 35011.4.2 WLAN and WiMAX 35211.4.3 Bluetooth 35311.4.4 ZigBee 35311.4.5 Infrared 35411.4.6 UWB 35411.4.7 Satellite and Microwave Communication 35411.4.8 Roaming between Local Wireless LANs 355

11.5 Universal and Transparent Audio, Video and Alphanumeric DataNetwork Access 35611.5.1 Combined Voice and Data Networks 35711.5.2 Combined Audio-Video and Data Content

Distribution Networks 35811.5.3 On-demand, Interactive and Distributed Content 360

11.6 Ubiquitous Networks 36011.6.1 Wireless Networks 36011.6.2 Power Line Communication (PLC) 36111.6.3 Personal Area Networks 36211.6.4 Body Area Networks 36211.6.5 Mobile Users Networks 363

11.6.5.1 Mobile Addresses 36311.6.5.2 Single-Path Routing 36411.6.5.3 Multi-Path Routing in Mobile Ad hoc Networks (MANETs) 364

11.7 Further Network Design Issues 36511.7.1 Network Access Control 36511.7.2 Ubiquitous Versus Localised Access 36611.7.3 Controlling Network Access: Firewalls, NATs and VPNs 36711.7.4 Group Communication: Transmissions for Multiple Receivers 36811.7.5 Internetworking Heterogeneous Networks 36811.7.6 Global Use: Low-Cost Access Networks for Rural Use 36911.7.7 Separating Management and Control from Usage 369

ExercisesReferences

1111

.7.8.1

.7.8.211.7.8.3111111

.7.8.4

.7.8.5

.7.8.6

Service-Orientation at the Network EdgeContent-based NetworksProgrammable NetworksOverlay NetworksMesh NetworksCooperative Networks

Contents

11.7.8 Service-Oriented Networks 370371372372372373375375376

12 Management of Smart Devices 37912.1 Introduction 379

12.1.1 Chapter Overview 38012.2 Managing Smart Devices in Virtual Environments 380

12.2.1 Process and Application Management 38012.2.2 Network-Oriented Management 380

12.2.2.1 FCAPS 38212.2.3 Monitoring and Accounting 383

12.2.3.1 ICMP 38412.2.3.2 SNMP 384

12.2.4 Configuration Management 38612.2.5 Security Management 386

12.2.5.1 Encryption Support for Confidentiality, Authenticationand Authorisation 388

12.2.5.2 Securing the System and its Middleware 38912.2.5.3 Securing Access Devices 39112.2.5.4 Securing Information 392

12.2.6 Fault Management 39312.2.7 Performance Management 39412.2.8 Service-Oriented Computer Management 395

12.2.8.1 Metrics for Evaluating the Use of SOA 39512.2.8.2 Distributed Resource Management and the Grid 39612.2.8.3 SLA Management of Services 39712.2.8.4 Policy-based Service Management 39712.2.8.5 . Pervasive Work Flow Management for Services 398

12.2.9 Information Management 39912.2.9.1 Information Applications 39912.2.9.2 Rich Versus Lean and Soft Versus Hard Information " 39912.2.9.3 Managing the Information Explosion 40012.2.9.4 Managing Multimedia Content 40112.2.9.5 Managing Lean and Hard Data Using RDBMSs 40212.2.9.6 Managing Metadata 403

12.3 Managing Smart Devices in Human User-Centred Environments 40412.3.1 Managing Richer and Softer Data 40412.3.2 Service Management Models for Human User and Physical

Environments 40412.3.3 User Task and Activity-Based Management 40712.3.4 Privacy Management 407

12.3.4.1 Biometric User Identification 40812.3.4.2 Privacy-Invasive Technologies versus Privacy-Enhanced

Technologies 410

Contents

12.3.4.3 Entrusted Regulation of User Privacy to Service Providers 41112.3.4.4 Legislative Approaches to Privacy 412

12.4 Managing Smart Devices in Physical Environments 41212.4.1 Context-Awareness 412

12.4.1.1 Context-Aware Management of Physical and Human Activities 41312.4.1.2 Management of Contexts and Events 413

12.4.2 Micro and Nano-Sized Devices 41512.4.3 Unattended Embedded Devices 415


13 Ubiquitous System: Challenges and Outlook 42113.1 Introduction 421

13.1.1 Chapter Overview 42113.2 Overview of Challenges 422

13.2.1 Key Challenges 42213.2.2 Multi-Level Support for UbiCom Properties 42313.2.3 Evolution Versus Revolution 42413.2.4 Future Technologies 424

13.3 Smart Devices 42513.3.1 Smaller, More Functional Smart Devices 42513.3.2 More Fluid Ensembles of Diverse Devices 42613.3.3 Richer System Interaction and Interoperability 421

13.3.3.1 Migrating from Analogue to Digital Device Interaction 42713.3.3.2 Richer Digital Device Interaction 428

13.4 Smart Interaction 42813.4.1 Unexpected Connectivity: Accidentally Smart Environments 42813.4.2 Impromptu Service Interoperability 429

13.5 Smart Physical Environment Device Interaction 43013.5.1 Context-Awareness: Ill-Defined Contexts Versus a Context-Free World 43013.5.2 Lower Power and Sustainable Energy Usage 43113.5.3 ECO-Friendly UbiCom Devices 433

13.6 Smart Human-Device Interaction 43613.6.1 More Diverse Human-Device Interaction 43713.6.2 More Versus Less Natural HCI 43913.6.3 Analogue to Digital and Digital Analogues 43913.6.4 Form Follows Function 44013.6.5 Forms for Multi-Function Devices 441

13.7 Human Intelligence Versus Machine Intelligence 44113.7.1 Posthuman: ICT Augments Human Abilities Beyond Being Human 44313.7.2 Blurring of Reality and Mediated Realities 444

13.8 Social Issues: Promise Versus Peril 44413.8.1 Increased Virtual Social Interaction Versus Local Social Interaction 44613.8.2 UbiCom Accessible by Everyone 44613.8.3 UbiCom Affordable by Everyone 44713.8.4 Legislation in the Digital World and Digitising Legislation 448

13.9 Final Remarks 450Exercises 451References 452

Index 455

ubiquitous computing

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