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Policy Implications for the Sustainability ofCommunity Radio in Uganda: The Case ofMAMA
FM Radio
Milly Nattimba
A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED IN PARTIALFULFILLMENT FOR THE AWARD OF A DEGREE OFMASTER OF ARTS IN COMMUNICATIONS STUDIES
OF THE UNIVERSITY OF LEEDS
September 1, 2004
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
AcknowledgementsDeclaration
List of Tables and BoxesTable 1: Ideal budget for MAMA FM 43Table 2: Volunteers minimum expenditures 51Box 1: Insensitive taxes 45
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 Introduction1.1 Overview 41.2 Purpose and Argument of the Research 51.3 Research Question and Hypothesis 6
1.4 Background of the Study 61.4.1 Community Radio Landscape in Uganda 61.4.1.2 Defining Community Radio 71.4.1.3 Advent of Community Radio in Uganda 81.4.2 History ofMAMA FM 111.4.2.1 Uniqueness ofMAMA FM 161.4.2.2 Economic Hardships of operating daily 10
1.5 Scope of Study 211.6 Limitations of Study 21
CHAPTER TWO
2.0 Theoretical Conceptualisation 23
CHAPTER THREE
3.0 Methodology 293.1 Research Design 293.2 Research Methods 29
3.2.1 Focused Interviews 293.2.2 Policy Review 303.2.3 Methods of Data Collection 30
CHAPTER FOUR
4.0 Data Presentation and Analysis 314.1 Broadcasting Policy Framework in Uganda 31
4.1.1 Uganda Communications Act, 1997 314.1.2 Draft Radio Communications Regulation, 2003 324.1.3 The Electronic Media Statute, 1996 34
4.1.3.1 Licencing 344.1.3.2 Licence to broadcast 34
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4.1.3.3 Licence to occupy a radio frequency 36
4.1.4 The Uganda National ICT Policy, 2002 374.1.5 The Draft Broadcasting Policy 40
4.2 The MAMA FMExperience 41
4.2.1 Composition of Interviews 414.2.2 Specific Results 424.2.2.1 Funding 424.2.2.2 Specific Policy Experiences 444.2.2.3 Partnerships and Linkages 464.2.2.4 Personnel 47
4.3 Data Interpretation and Analysis 524.3.1 Testing of Hypothesis 52
4.4 Discussion 524.4.1 Policy Gaps 524.4.2 Policy Experiences 54
4.4.3 Funding 554.4.4 Personnel 564.4.5 Partnerships and Linkages 56
CHAPTER FIVE
5.0 Conclusions 575.1 Summary 575.2 Main Conclusions 575.3 Recommendations 59
5.3.1 Recommendations for government 595.3.2 Recommendations for Community Media Owners 60
5.3.3 Recommendations for government and donors 605.3.4 Research-oriented recommendations 61
Bibliography 62
AppendicesAppendix 1: Interview scheduleAppendix 2: List of interviewees
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CHAPTER ONE
1.0 Introduction
1.1Overview
This research examines the effects communications policy in Uganda has
on the sustainability of community radio. The research is specific on
MAMA FM, a womens radio station that aims to bridge the gender gap
created by corporate radio ownership, in disseminating development
information.
Uganda is currently under- going a series of changes. It has opened up
spheres of interaction: in the economy, politics, social-cultural debates and
other areas. This process has also involved freeing the air-waves to
corporate investment, leading to a highly commercialized broadcasting
sector which thrives on advertising; thus paying more attention to the
advertisers than the ordinary people.
Community radio comes in to serve the people underserved by
commercial radio, especially those in the low-income categories- the
urban poor and the rural-based, the women and those with disabilities.
Communications policy frameworks in Uganda however, are not
conducive to the survival of community radio.
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This research analyzes the different regulations governing broadcasting.
The findings indicate that the present policy framework affects funding, the
retention of personnel, and the service delivery of community radio,
making sustainability extremely problematic for operators of community
radio stations.
If community radio in Uganda continues to be regulated by a framework
designed for independent commercial radio, it will eventually collapse or
metamorphose into commercial broadcasting. This inevitably endangers
the on-going democratization process.
1.2 Purpose and Argument of the Research.
The purpose of this research is to establish the gaps in broadcasting
policy, how they affect the financial sustainability of community radio and
proposed strategies for reform.
The argument here is that Ugandas communication policy is corporate
radio- oriented having been formulated during the countrys trend of
liberalization.
To be sustainable, community radio needs a policy framework that is
sensitive to its peculiar structural, organizational and operational needs.
The report will follow a logical organization. The overview of the research,
purpose and argument of the research, the research question and
hypothesis, the background of the study problem, and the theoretical and
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empirical conceptualization of the study will be presented in the first
chapter of the report. The second chapter is a theoretical
conceptualization of the study while the third chapter covers the
methodology. Empirical data will be presented and analyzed in the fourth
chapter. Chapter five will present conclusions.
1.3Research question and hypothesis
Research question: Does the present communication policy guarantee
sustainability of community radio in Uganda?
Hypothesis: The communications policy in Uganda is not conducive for
sustainable operation of community radio in Uganda.
1.4 Background of the study
1.4.1 Community Radio Landscape in Uganda
Broadcasting in Uganda has since colonialism, been an area preserved
for government and the elite (Mutabazi, 2004, Buckley, 2000). From the
early 1950s to the early 1990s there was only one radio station and one
television station centrally-controlled by government. It is only in the early
1990s that the communications sector was opened up for corporate
investment. The late 1990s introduced another phenomenon in the sector
when the first community radio station-Kibale Kagadi Community Radio-
was opened (Mwangi, 1999).
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Since then community radio in Uganda has come to be regarded by
development communicators as one of the most appropriate means of
communication, especially in transmitting development information
(Buckley, 2000). Development information here means information on
health, education, agri-business, income generation and other categories
of information that can enable women transform their lives from
dependency to independency.
1.4.1.2 Defining Community Radio
Community radio can be universally defined as small scale radio stations
organized by the local community with the help of one or two technical
experts to transmit information that caters for the primary needs of a given
geographical community or community of interest. Therefore community
radio, is integrated with practices of community life while corporate radio
is integrated with the life of the business community. While the public
actively participates in the affairs of community radio the business
community is the backbone of corporate radio.
(http://www.wacc.org.uk/modules.php?name=News&file=print&sid=786)
Wanyeki (1999) writes that community radio ownership and management
patterns are quite diverse but they are generally non-governmental and
non-corporate. The nature of community media is participatory and the
purpose of community media (radio) is developmental (pp: 30).
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The World Association of Community Broadcasters (AMARC) defines
community radio as having three aspects: non-profit making, community
ownership and control, community participation
(http://www.amarc.org/amarc/ang/amarc-commun/radio/radio.htm).
1.4.1.3 Advent of Community Radio in Uganda.
Community radio in Uganda arose out of the realization by development
practictitioners that the lack of access to development-oriented information
especially on particular programmes like entandikwa (poverty eradication)
scheme, greatly hampered peoples participation in such programmes.
A number of NGOs and government donor-funded programmes on
poverty alleviation were continually failing because of poor information
flow or total lack of it (UMWA, 2003).
The state-funded radio station, Radio Uganda was rapidly deteriorating
and narrowing in geographical coverage. When the Ministry of
Information- where Radio Uganda falls- was reduced to a department
under the Office of the President its funding was cut, while its duties,
personnel and coverage were expected to remain the same. This led to
loss of morale of the employees, loss of quality in programming and
reduced regularity in equipment maintenance. As a result of irregular
maintenance the signal became weak and reception to many parts of the
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country, especially those far from the capital city, was completely cut off
(Baguma, Lugalambi, Zawadi, 2000).
On the other hand commercial radio stations were more concerned about
covering issues and people that would make the advertisers put in more
money (Ojiambo, 1999a). Inevitably, commercial radio stations were more
concentrated in urban areas where peoples purchasing power was much
higher and promising in terms of attracting advertisements
(http://www.panos.org.uk/global/projectdetails.asp?
ProjectID=1026&ID=1002 )
The development practitioners in especially the rural areas and special
areas like gender and womens issues realized the need to come up with
communication channels that are particularly tailored to the specific
development needs of the communities in which they were operating
This explains why most of the community radio stations in Uganda are
initiated and run by Non-government Organizations. Non Government
Organizations are the key players because all communities they serve
lack the resources, the expertise and the skills to operate their own radio
stations.
Community radio in Uganda is a recent development; as recent as 1999
July when Kagadi-Kibaale Community Radio was launched by the Uganda
Rural Development and Training Trust.
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The station is fully owned by the local community who selected a
committee to take care of all the interests of the different stakeholders in
the running of the radio station.
It mobilizes and provides information to the local community of Kagadi
Sub County in western Uganda, for development that takes a holistic
nature, where the community members are not only recipients of
information but are also engaged in generating information used in
development planning.
The Uganda Rural Development and Training Trust came up with the
radio station to enhance its training programmes in rural sustainable
development in all areas like education, agriculture, small-scale business
development, human rights awareness and advocacy among others
(Mwangi, 1999).
In Northern Uganda where a civil war has been raging for the last 18
years, another community radio station has been set up to contribute to
efforts geared at peace-building in the region. Radio Apac broadcasts
programmes aimed at improving the livelihood of the local community of
Apac and neighboring districts affected by the war, mainly Gulu, Kitgum
and Pader. (http:www.interconnnection.org/radioapac/homehtm ).
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MAMA FM- another community station - specifically addresses itself to
gender and womens issues. It was launched in 2001 as the first radio
station started and run by women in Africa to bridge the gender gap that
commercial programming creates in addressing development needs of the
people. (http://interconnection.org/umwa/community_radio.html ).
From the above brief run-through of the community radio landscape in
Uganda it is clear that community radio stations come into being to
address divergent issues ranging from the general, like mobilizing for
community development and women empowerment, to the specific like
mobilizing for peace-building. This means community radio in Uganda is
started according to geographical location and community of interest.
1.4.2 History ofMAMA FM.
In Uganda, one of the most marginalized groups of people are the women;
they are the most hit by inequalities in education, access to productive
resources, political power and social recognition (Nassanga, 1997). While
women produce 80% of all food crops, 60% of all traditional exports like
maize and others, they own only 7% of land (Okwakol, 2002). Ojiambo
(1999) writes that women in Uganda occupy only 9% of decision-making
positions and only 1% can access credit. Yet in development practice it
has been observed that balancing the genders is a fundamental element
in working towards sustainable development (Nassanga, 1997). With high
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levels of illiteracy-55.1% for women in 2000-
(http://www.ifad.org/gender/learning/sector/extension/52.htm ) and the
eventual marginalization of women, it became evident that the print media
could not be of much use. Community radio, which can cater for specific
needs of specific people, and is easy to access, remained the most cost-
effective option (Isis-WICCE, 2002).
Photo 1: Learning to write at age 50: The kind of women MAMA FM
targets.
Source:http://www.ifad.org/gender/learning/sector/extension/52.html
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Womens access to information that is relevant to their development
needs; through a user-friendly channel became an urgent need that led to
the establishment ofMAMA FM, a women-focused radio station.
Traditionally in Uganda the media on average portray women as
belonging to the backyards of society, concerned with only entertaining
their husbands in bedroom and kitchen matters and having children.
Women are rarely portrayed as achievers (Nassanga and Nattimba,
1994). They are considered as appendages of men. Their views and
thoughts on public matters are considered sufficiently catered for by the
men, be they brothers, fathers, village chiefs and husbands (Kawamara,
1992). For instance, the women who were brave enough to come out and
engage in politics in the early 1990s are still queried as to who gave them
permission to get involved in an area that involves public speaking. And
those who are not married are considered idle and incompetent for a
public job like local council representative (UMWA, 1998).
These are the kind of images MAMA FMset out to correct.
MAMA FMwas founded in 2000 but launched in 2001 by the Uganda
Media Womens Association (UMWA), to counter the negative portrayal of
women, and the under-representation of gender and womens issues in
the mainstream broadcast media
(http://interconnection.org/umwa/community_radio.html).
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The radio station was started after the organization carried out a feasibility
study of information accessibility and realized that rural women and the
urban poor women were lagging behind in access to information, which
affected their participation in development activities (UMWA, 1998). They
also do not have the means to express their own realities, debate their
interpretations of those realities and engage in discussions about potential
solutions with decision and policy makers at the national level (Wanyeki,
2001: pp: 33). There were two main issues to note.
Media structures in Uganda are a reflection of the over-all cultural
orientation of the entire Uganda society where womens voices are not
expected to be heard in public, including public media like radio. Uganda
is a patriarchal society where women are not decision makers. (Nassanga,
1997).
Due to this mindset, even information on the development programmes
and projects that were designed for communities went through the men
who are the heads of households. Most men however would never pass
on the information to the women, yet in the homes women do 90% of the
work, like agricultural production, looking after sick members of the
household, catering for the food needs of the household, paying school
fees and husbands graduated tax, and the general management of the
home (UMWA, 2003). But this is not considered as viable contribution to
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the economy, and as a result women are left out of information
dissemination activities. Unfortunately, the mainstream media has done
very little to help women organizations and women at large to demystify
(this kind of) stereotype thinking (Ojiambo, 1999a pp: 11).
Therefore, by not accessing the necessary information on health and
hygiene, modern farming methods and nutrition needs of the family,
women did not have the opportunity to develop themselves and their
family members (Nassanga, 1997).
The second reason is that some women who had already overcome the
hurdle of cultural inhibitions did not have the necessary confidence to
appear and talk on radio, and in any case media practitioners were never
keen on interviewing the women. This made the women sink deeper into
their cocoons of seclusion. Such women needed some confidence-
building atmosphere, to give them the necessary boost (UMWA, 1998).
So, MAMA FMwas started to promote the voices of women both in the
public and private spheres and also provide training to young women
interested in broadcasting (UMWA, 2001).
MAMA FMdeals with issues that are of great concern to women in the
areas of health, economic empowerment, politics, policy, agricultural
production and marketing, leadership skills, peace-building, human rights,
education and others.
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The radio station is estimated to serve over ten million people in central,
part of Western, South Western and Eastern Uganda
On 101.7 FM, MAMA covers a radius of 300- 400km targeting particularly
women in the reproductive age bracket (15-50 years). It promotes
interactive communication as it provides for immediate feedback between
the station volunteers and the communities through field visits.
1.4.2.1 Uniqueness ofMAMA FM
Although MAMA FMis a community radio station it deals with a national
issue; that of bringing womens concerns to the development agenda, and
it is fully managed and three quarters staffed by women.
.MAMA FMis bridging the divide between the private and the public and
bringing women to the public arena where issues that affect their lives are
debated and sometimes solutions provided (Kawamara, 2003).
With this radio station UMWA could counter the difficulties of single
programme in the mainstream media. This single programme applies to
public service broadcasting and not corporate broadcasting. Corporate
stations will only put on air a programme on women or gender concerns if
it is sponsored by an organization.
Many radio stations have one token programme once a week on womens
issues and gender concerns. With a single programme, it is difficult to
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sustain the debate on the many issues concerning womens development
needs (Nassanga, 1997).
To break the shackles of patriarchy on women requires more sustained
debate and this is where an issue- focused radio station like MAMA FM
becomes crucial (UMWA, 2001).
Women right from the manager to the technical staff wholly manage the
radio station, while three quarters of the volunteers have to be women.
MAMA FMworks at changing the way women participate in radio
programming as producers and as listeners and also to give a human face
to the women and gender issues that were previously predominantly
represented in terms of mere statistics. The aim was to give the statistics
a face and a voice. So MAMA FMtook on its slogan, The Voice for the
Voiceless [statistics] by encouraging women to participate in its
programmes (http://interconnection.org/umwa/community_radio.html).
Researches and studies had been carried out in Uganda on the impact of
the gender sensitive policies of government and varying statistics given as
to how rapidly women in Uganda were actively getting visible in the public
sphere, but without being audible (Tripp, 1998,Nassanga, 1997, Tripp and
Kwesiga, 2002).MAMA FMgives them that element of audibility
(Matembe, 2001).
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Since MAMA FMcannot cover the entire nation, radio listenership groups
were set up by the management in fifteen districts to achieve a multiplier
effect in its information dissemination projects to rural areas. Recorded
programmes were distributed to womens groups and their views and
opinions on the issues raised are then recorded and aired on the radio.
Women were given radio sets and programme schedules from which- with
some guidance- they would select programmes that suit their needs like
health, agriculture, human rights, income generation, and adult literacy.
After listening they record their own discussions of the information in the
programme and the tapes are exchanged between groups in the same
language-speaking districts. Such programmes were scheduled to go on
air at night when women have time to listen to them.
However, many women dropped out of the group listening scheme
because their husbands and fathers would not let them go out at night and
sit with groups of other women to listen to radio. The other problem was
that many of the groups could not afford to buy the batteries that were
needed to run the radio sets, and the groups weakened (Sentamu, 2004).
MAMA FMtries to encourage the women to talk to the radio stations
producers and presenters about the issues in their lives that they would
like to let out. A few have grabbed this opportunity and they are very
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active in participating in all the programmes, but many are still afraid of
their husbands.
One woman with a health question believes she ought to ask herhusband before talking to the programme presenter. Others simplylack the technical and financial means. Many women would like tocome over to the studios us but don't have the money for transport.Others have no radio at home, because it belongs to the husbandand he takes it into town every day, said Tiisa.(http://www.radioafrica.oneworld.net/article/view/72080/1).
This means they cannot listen regularly and independently.
In a society where the death of a goat in a homestead may mean the end
of ones future, many women find it difficult raising money to buy and
maintain their own radio sets. In rural Uganda, for instance, on average
an individual household earns approximately $5 a month- the World Bank
puts it at $1 a day- (Appleton, online) which covers the daily expenses like
medical treatment, consumables, school fees, agricultural implements and
other necessities. The major source of income is agriculture, which is
carried out at the most rudimentary level. Such people cannot even think
of supporting a radio station, financially.
1.4.2.2 Economic hardships of operating daily
The radio station is on air 18 hours a day. This means there are more than
6 people working everyday. They have to be transported. These two
elements are crucial.
Transport makes life very tense at the station; sometimes presenterscall one hour before the time they are supposed to go on air and
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report they will not be able to make it: they have no money fortransport. Like wise, it is almost impossible to make people work onempty stomachs. We tried providing them with lunch but it proved tooexpensive and we stopped that, Tiisa noted.
She notes this has led to absenteeism, resulting into broadcasting fillers
and repeats, a thing that draws the audience to other stations.
Electricity supply in Uganda is quite erratic. On average supply gets cut off
three times a day.
This means there has to be fuel in the standby generators at all time.
Sometimes the generator develops problems and it leaks so you findsome of the fuel has been lost, or sometimes it develops a blockageand the fuel does not flow well. You may think it is a big mechanicalproblem and you call in the technician, who will charge you for onlyremoving a piece of rubbish that was sucked into the generator, saidTiisa.
Sentamu notes;
It is hard enough maintaining the staff, but it is even hardermaintaining the audience. Working in a highly commercialenvironment means co-existing with radio stations that invest heavilyin giving out freebies to attract listeners, which MAMA FM cannotafford doing.
The MAMA FMmodel is that of a womens radio station organizing
separately as opposed to the model where a radio station is built within
the structure of another radio station. (Mitchell, 2002). Some womens
radio stations are part of bigger general radio stations; they are more like
divisions within a bigger arrangement. This to some extent ensures them
security of funding since they are budgeted for as a department within the
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bigger organization. Radio Venus (a womens radio station in the UK), at
Bradford Community Broadcasting is one such radio station that is part of
a bigger arrangement.
MAMA FMon the other hand is an independent arrangement, organizing
separately, as opposed to Radio Venus. MAMA FMtherefore has to carry
out its own sourcing of funds to ensure survival.
But the institutional and the ideological context within which the
community radio station is situated is very crucial to whether and to what
extent women can actually access this community radio. This is where it is
very important to examine the legal framework within which the radio is
operating and how it affects its operations.
1.5 Scope of study
The study focuses on the implications of broadcasting policy, on the
survival of community radio in Uganda. The case study is MAMA FM.
1.6 Limitations of the study
There was limited funding to carry out the research. The researcher could
not travel, and had to rely on email communication with the interviewees.
A lot of in-depth information that would have made the research more
informative was lost along the way.
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The time frame, within which the research was conducted, was not
enough to allow observation of the daily stress operators ofMAMA FMgo
through to go on air.
The limited literature on community radio in Uganda was a hindrance
since the researcher could not carry out much comparison of data.
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CHAPTER TWO
2.0: Theoretical Conceptualisation
Not many researches have been done on this subject. Most of the few that
exist are general covering the global community radio movement. The
predominant theory under which most of the literature on community radio
appears is democracy.
From the perspective of present day Uganda when the process of
democratization is permeating all sectors of society, community radio is a
tool that can empower the information-deprived communities to contribute
to decisions that affect their lives (Girard, 1992).
The ideals of community radio relate to the normative theories of the
media, where the media are considered tools of liberation, and channels
which people can use to agitate for political and cultural change
(Thompson, 1994, Lewis, 2002)
Community radio therefore operates under the theory of communicative
democracy and self-governance, where communities on the margins of
society access power to determine their destiny (Mitchell, 2002)
(http://www.rnw.nl/realradio/community/html/definition.html).
Ojiambo (1999a) writes that community radios have the unique two-way
communication aspect that enables them enhance democratic procedures
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in communication (pp: 1), both internally within the organization and
externally in the communities.
In here, emphasis is on how less privileged people who are the primary
stakeholders of information can be accorded more space to voice their
contributions to national and community debates of whatever nature
(Nelson and Wright, 1995). This space provided, creates avenues for
developing confidence and changing the attitudes of the stakeholders who
can then work together to create more impact in their community affairs
(Girard, 1994).
Mitchell (cited in Hollander, 2002, pp: 359) argues that community radio
can act as an arena for feminist public sphere, meaning a womens radio
can provide a platform for developing a media environment that is gender-
tolerant in a field that is rife with inequality.
Writing about the financing of community radio, Jawonski (2003) noted
that this could be through among other sources advertising. There are
some community radio stations that do depend on some level of
advertising but it is also enlightening to take into account the policy
framework of the different media landscapes under which the community
media operates.
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This concern is echoed by Rennie (2003) who writes that it is erroneous to
concentrate on the dynamics of community communication without due
regard to the influence of frameworks set by government. This gives an
image far from realistic on how the sector works (pp: 52).
Linden [1999, online] writes that,
Formulation of policy and planning procedures in the Third World arecharacterized by vagueness in conceptualization, and National Plansare often prescriptive than analytical, showing the gaps betweenreality and rhetoric, intention and implementation [pp: 159].
These gaps affect how community radio contributes to the process of
democracy.
Linden further comments,
What prevails are isolated policies on various media andcommunication components and national governments playing a rolein their ownership, management and controlin many Africancountries there is a glaring contrast between officially declaredintentions and reality..[ pp: 168]
Opubor (1999) observed that the general policy framework under which
community radio is regulated is not favorable. Although governments have
come to legislate for the opening up of all sectors of the economy,
including the media, which has led to the establishment of community
radio initiatives, the legal framework is still not clear about the position of
such initiatives.
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Opubor stresses the need to have communication and information policies
at all levels that are pro- poor and reflect a wider understanding of how
accessing information can aid the poor take part in the development
process.
Taking a historical approach- a departure this time from the rest of the
writers- Wanyeki (1999) notes that regulating the media in the East African
region has historically taken on a barrier-approach. She says instead of
ensuring access to information and the means to generate information by
all categories of people, governments have focused on policies that
control this access.
She notes further that even with the advent of pluralism in all sectors,
Few concrete constitutional, legal and policy provisions have beenadopted to ensure that community media- as opposed toindependent commercial media- are developed and explicitlysupported (pp: 38).
In Wanyekis view the emphasis should be on what purpose regulation
serves and not what should be regulated and whether it should be
regulated.
Wanyeki (2000, ed) writes that the communications policy in Uganda was
primarily concerned with opening up the airwaves in line with other sectors
of the economy without much regard to the kind of media landscape that
would emerge eventually. Major focus is on consumer choice that
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automatically arises from freeing the market forces but community radio
cannot survive under the harsh market forces.
There appears to have been little reflection on what kind of
broadcasting would emerge in a free market in the existing economicconditions, and whether it would meet the development needs of thecountrys population (pp: 5).
In here democracy has been left to compete with the forces of supply and
demand.
Ojiambo (1999a) writes that the government of Uganda formulated its
communications policy without having clearly defined its development
agenda, which leads to having in place policies that are not harmonized at
all. She further writes that as long as the communications industry in
Uganda is left to the regulation of the market forces the information-
deprived who are meant to benefit from community radio will lag behind.
Gawaya 1999 (online) argues that government policies are sometimes
formulated poorly and used as a punitive tool against the sector they are
meant for.
License fees are sometimes used as a political tool for those radio
stations that go out of line with the government views.
He says that the 1999 unexpected hiking of the annual license fees by the
Broadcasting Council to 5 million Uganda shillings (approx $ 2780) is a
case in point.
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Gawaya may have judged this move a little too radically since at the end
of the day it affects all stations, but it is an indicator of the undemocratic
system of decision making in the country.
In line with Wanyekis (1999) argument debates going on elsewhere to
develop community radio in Uganda indicate that for the geographically
and information poor, community radio is still their internet.
Rural [community] radios are different from private radios. Theyserve different purposes. It is therefore hyper-and cyber-important
that different licensing procedures be put in place for theirfunctioning.http://www.wougnet.org/WSIS/ug/docs/ISUGreport_en.pdf
Enabling communications policies are therefore an empowering tool in the
democratization process. Such policies should provide community radio
an operational environment free of uncertainties but guarantees
sustainability. (Buckley, 2000).
.
While the literature reviewed above indicates how bad policies endanger
the sustainability of community radio thus hampering the democratization
of communities, most of it is in form of brief workshop and seminar papers.
Overall empirical data is very scanty. This is the gap I hope to fill in this
research.
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CHAPTER THREE
3.0 METHODOLOGY
3.1 Research Design
This is basically a case study and the aim is to examine how policy affects
the service delivery of community radio in Uganda. The study is focused
on MAMA FM, which is a unique community radio station in that it is not
geographically confined, but a national community radio station
addressing gender equity and social justice.
But most pertinent to this study, establishing MAMA FMbrought to light
policy related trials and tribulations as well as opportunities that go with
implementing a community radio station in Uganda.
3.2 Research Methods
3.2.1 Focused Interviews
Since this is a research that aims to bring out policy gaps and
experiences, one of the methods used in gathering information is focused
interviews with different categories of people.
These people include community radio station managers, station policy
makers, programme producers, and officials of regulatory bodies. In order
to remain focused on the issues and capture the relevant regulatory
insights and experiences, the research involved fourteen interviewees.
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After analyzing the policy gaps, the interviews are the best method to
solicit the experiences of the people involved in the running of these radio
stations and also getting an insight into the policy-making and
implementation process from the people involved.
3.2.2 Policy Review
Document Analysis is the obvious method to use in order to assess the
gaps that exist in the policies that may endanger the future of community
radio in Uganda.
3.2.3 Method of Data Collection
For the interviews, interview schedules are used to guide the interviews.
Interview schedules are the best in this case where in-depth information is
needed. They give the researcher plenty of room to probe and adjust the
direction of the interview where necessary.
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CHAPTER FOUR
4.0 DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS.
The first section of this chapter is an analysis of the gaps in the policy and
their effect on community radio operations, while the second section will
present MAMA FMs experience with the gaps.
4.1 Communications policy framework in Uganda
There are communications regulations in place guiding the broadcast
sector in Uganda. These regulations form a framework that is currently
working as broadcasting policy (Mutabazi, 2004).
4.1.1 The Uganda Communications Act, 1997.
The Uganda Communications Act establishes the Uganda
Communications Commission, which is the regulatory body in charge of all
the technical aspects of telecommunications and broadcasting in the
country. The commission was set up by the Communications Commission
Act 1997, an Act of Parliament. The commission was put in place after
government opened up the airwaves following the general policy of
liberalizing the economy.
However by the time the commission was put in place; there was already
a commercial radio station on air: Ssanyu FM.
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Among other duties the commission has to lay down specific regulations
regarding frequency allocation and licensing, the overall operations of the
telecommunications sector, radio communications and technical rules
regarding the broadcasting sector.
On its website, (http://www.ucc.co.ug/), The Uganda Communications
Commission states that,
The rise of competition in the restructured telecommunication andbroadcasting sectors in Uganda is representing new challenges inthe way the radio frequency spectrum is managed.
This statement indicates that the commission realizes that the increase in
competition in the country comes with new aspects in how the sector has
to be handled.
One of the regulations formulated by the commission is the Draft Radio
Communications Regulation, 2003.
4.1.2 The Draft Radio Communications Regulation 2003.
This draft regulation, which is one of those that have been formulated by
the Uganda Communications Commission, has only two sections on
broadcasting frequency under sub-regulation 12 (http://www.ucc.co.ug/).
Section (1) says that
The Commission, shall in consultation with the Broadcasting Councilestablished under the Electronic Media Statute, 1996 designate andallocate a part of the spectrum which shall be included in the Uganda
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Table of Frequency Allocations as being primarily for broadcastingpurposes.
Section (2) further says that,
The Commission shall not issue a radio spectrum license authorizingoperation of a radio frequency device within part of the spectrumdesignated for broadcasting purposes, unless the licensee firstobtains an authorization by the Broadcasting Council, in accordancewith the Electronic Media Act, 1996.
In the regulation these two sections are termed special provisions for
broadcasting. The problem is that what is special about them is not
explicitly mentioned.
The Uganda Communications Commission Act, 1997, in The
Communications (Universal Service) regulation, 2003, sub-regulation 2,
section (e) has a provision for the formation of Rural Communications
Development Fund established under the Communications (Establishment
and management of the Rural Communications Development Fund)
Instrument, 2002.
According to Nabunya (2004), it is very unfortunate that this golden
opportunity is geared towards aiding and developing the
telecommunications sector, itself purely commercial and able to finance
itself quite adequately
Rural Uganda needs a well-serviced telecommunications sector inorder to catch up with the rest of the country in developmentactivities. But looking at the sector in terms of priorities and viability,this fund is well suited for the broadcast sector, more specifically the
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community radio service that is the best option-the fact that it usesthe local language and local experiences- for transmitting informationto rural areas, Nabunya added.
4.1.3 The Electronic Media Statute, 1996.
The Broadcasting Council was set up in 1998 by an Act of Parliament; the
Electronic Media Statute 1996, now referred to as an ACT CAP 104 2000
OF THE LAWS OF UGANDA. Among the main duties of the Council is the
responsibility to formulate and provide guidelines on the content of
electronic media programmes and also determine and set the
broadcasting license fees. The Electronic Media Statute created a
licensing system for radio and television stations in the country, among
other duties.
Baguma (2004), said,
This is the Statute that is now being used in regulating the media. Ithas no space for community radio whatsoever. How can radiopromote cultural values, with community radio at such adisadvantage?
4.1.3.1 Licensing
4.1.3.2 License to broadcast
For every radio station to go on air it must obtain a license from the
Broadcasting Council. The organization or individual(s) applying for the
frequency have/has to go through the Broadcasting Council for a vetting
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process of eligibility after producing name and address, written proof of
qualifications and experience, and name and address of the station.
The cost of the license is between one million (approx $ 555) and five
million (approx $ 2777) Uganda shillings. (Note: Rate used; 1 USD= 1800
Uganda shillings). This is levied according to the location of the station,
whether rural or urban.
The Electronic Media Statute 1996 in Part 11, Chapter 3,Article (1) section
(c), says that the council shall, before issuing a license under this section,
take into account{c} the location of station and the geographical area to
which broadcast is to be made;
Although it is commendable and necessary that the bill recognizes the
unique financial position of stations that operate in the rural areas,
Kyomuhendo (2004) maintains that it appears to be blind to the fact that
regulation should be based on the nature and mission of the station as
location is not enough.
There are commercial rural FM stations that are likely to benefit morefrom this kind of regulation, by paying less for the license yet theiroperations are purely commercial, she said.
Part of the problem here arises from the fact that in policy-making in
Uganda a number of issues are never conceptualizes fully by the parties
involved in formulating the policy. According to Sentamu (2004), in
Uganda, community radio is understood to mean rural, meaning
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community radio stations that are not strictly located in rural areas are
taken for being commercial or well off financially.
MAMAFMdeals with bringing women and their concerns onto the
development agenda, and this means dealing with the poorest among the
poor in Uganda. These people cannot sustain their station due to their
extreme poverty levels, said Sentamu.
So, a fee structure that does not put into place provisions that can cater
for such radio stations does not foster development at all.
4.1.3.3 License to occupy a radio frequency
After obtaining the license to broadcast and paying the license fee, the
applying organization has to be allocated a frequency by the Uganda
Communications Commission, where again an annual frequency fee has
to be paid (approx $ 555).
Among its duties the Communications Commission has to put in place a
frequency fee structure, which is determined and classified according to
transmitter power, using the following formula:
AFE=Klog (P/25) x (BW/12500) x 30000
PF=0.17 x AFE
Where;
AFE= Annual Frequency Fee in Uganda shillings.
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APF= Application Processing Fee.
P= Transmitter power in Watts.
BW= Bandwidth in KHz.
K= 0.14 which is a constant.
BW= 200 KHz for radio broadcasting.
So, FM radios pay 5,000,000 ( $2777) a year
(Source: Sengendo, Geofffrey, Uganda Communication Commission).
4.1.4 The Uganda National Information and Communications
Technology Policy, 2002.
This policy recognizes the fact that information flow is a key component in
the development process. (http://www.ilo.org/).
The policy has three principal areas of focus, but for this research only two
are relevant;
Information as a resource for development.
Mechanisms for accessing information.
It is important here to examine how the Information and Communications
Technology policy positions information in the development process.
The policy considers information as an empowering tool for people in the
development process and it addresses itself to such information as health,
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agriculture, energy, education, science and technology, among other
categories of information.
Government realized that development planning needed proper
communication and information flow planning from the centre to the
people and vice-versa, plus the lateral flow of information between the
people and other actors involved in development practice.
The policy formulators acknowledge the need to have in place a
framework that bridges the rural- urban divide in information accessibility
especially for people who are on the margins of society; the women, the
disabled and the rural poor.
Under section 3.3.1 Communication Infrastructure (Broadcasting), the
policy recognizes the fact that the FM stations have limited geographical
coverage and mainly carry commercial and entertainment programmes.
The chapter on Investment in ICT Industry (3.6), (3.6.2) recognizes the
danger of leaving the communication sector to market regulation. It states
thus;
Communication is one of the basic human rights and access tocommunication channels should not be left entirely to market forces.This creates a situation of information dualism, with a minority urbaninformation rich and rural majority being information poor. Conduciveenvironment for investment in communication infrastructures should
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be promoted to narrow the information gap between the urban andthe rural areas (pp: 21).
Yet initiative like community radio that aim at narrowing the information
gap are left vulnerable to market forces. It is ironical said Sentamu.
The same chapter states that, there should be regulation that encourages
media pluralism to flourish, while media enterprises are given space to
expand. But Sentamu argues that commercialism is taken to mean
pluralism yet these are two different arrangements. Commercialism is a
component under pluralism, she added.
Objective 3 [j] talks about facilitating the establishment of community
radio stations so as to increase levels of information dissemination and
public participation [pp: 25].
It is not clear what kind of facilitation is meant here. According to Sheila
Kawamara-Mishambi (2004), it could be just allowing them get registered
and get allocated frequencies and licenses, having paid the same amount
of money and going through the same registration rigors like everybody
else.
Objective 9 [c], the government is like shooting itself in the foot when it
says that one of the objectives of the policy is to encourage and support
private sector initiatives that develop and disseminate multilingual content,
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particularly to the disadvantaged groups and communities with special
needs. This goes with section [b] under objective 10, which addresses the
development of mechanisms that aim at increasing womens access to
information, in order to reduce the gap between the genders and between
rural and urban.
This would partly be done through good policy, so that initiatives like
MAMA FM, do not find themselves spending valuable time thinking about
how they can possibly survive, instead of fulfilling their mission of
empowering the communities (Dunaway, 2002).
4.1.5 The Draft Broadcasting Policy A new Broadcasting Aspiration for
Uganda May 2004.
This draft broadcasting policy acknowledges the fact that the lack of clear
and explicit policy guidelines has led to community radio stations
operating under the same regulations like all other FM stations (pp: 21).
The Broadcasting Council therefore proposes broadcasting to be
classified and regulated under three tiers: Public Service broadcasting,
Commercial broadcasting and community broadcasting, with each
category paying a different license fee. Community stations are expected
to pay less than commercial stations, according to this draft policy.
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In general terms, the draft policy is a positive step toward solving some of
the problems that bedevil community radio in Uganda. There are however,
a few but important areas that need to be revisited.
Under Policy Area 4 that addresses community broadcasting, by definition
a community broadcasting service should either be catering for a
geographical community or a community of interest. However according to
the categories given under community of interest, it is not clear how a
radio station like MAMA FMwould fit in; whether under institutional or
cultural communities (pp: 21-22), an issue that Sentamu agrees with.
On page 23, the policy document states that radio stations that desire to
broadcast over a wide geographical area, beyond their basic audience will
have to put up a viable explanation.
For a radio station like MAMA FMwhose community of interest iscountrywide (women), this phrase may make its existing operationaldifficulties worse, said Sentamu.
4.2 The MAMA FMexperience
4.2.1 Composition of Interviews
This section of the research involved 12 interviewees; the station
manager, the Executive Director of UMWA- the organization that runs
MAMA FM, and 10 of the 22 producers and presenters of the station.
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4.2.2 Specific Results.
The most pertinent issues this section was looking at were the
experiences of the people managing community radio stations in relation
to the identified policy gaps, most especially how the policy environment
affects the sustainability of the station.
According to the responses from the Executive Director Uganda Media
Womens Association, (the NGO that runs MAMA FM) Margaret Sentamu
Masagazi, the major problem is that the broadcasting policies are broad
policies, which dont have any provisions for specific needs and
characteristics like those of community radio. This she says makes the
policies insensitive to the difficulties involved in implementing and
operating a community radio station that to a large extent would depend
on the less-t-do beneficiaries who cannot afford its sustainability by way of
covering the operational costs.
4.2.2.1 Funding
The state of the policy affects the funding of the radio station that depends
on donors for over 80% of its funding. Donor funding with the current
prevalent donor fatigue, is not sustainable at all, said Sentamu.
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Table 1: Monthly requirements forMama FM
S/N ITEMS AMOUNT(USD)
1 Ground rent 2002 Water bill 1003 Electricity 5004 Field for 2 standby generators 1505 Frequency fees to Uganda Communication Commission 506 License to UBC 2407 License fees to Kampala City Council 908 Volunteers facilitation (22) (Presenters) @ $300 66009 Station Managers Salary (2) 180010 Producers (3) @ 500 150011 Technician (2) 500 100012 Researchers (3) 240013 Editors (2) 120014 Administrator 90015 Insurance / Security 100016 Maintenance/Servicing machines 40017 Supplies tapes / batteries/stationery etc 350
18 Transport 45019 Maintenance of vehicle 15020 Coordination vehicle (2) 1000
TOTAL (MONTHLY) 20080
Source: Uganda Media Womens Association, (2004).
The above table gives an indication of what the radio station would need to
run without any difficulties.
Sentamu said the fact that there is no difference between profit-making
and non-profit making radio stations before the law, has made it an
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extremely hard task to run MAMA FM. According to the stations
fundraising policy, it can receive funding from local and international
donors as long as the nature of the donors work does not lead to
compromising the principles, policies and values ofMAMA FM. This has to
be done with caution not be seen as making profit, but simply generating
enough money for sustainability. The question however is how enough for
sustainability is determined, she mused. The Uganda Revenue Authority
will not hesitate to pounce on you as long as they think you are making
some money, she concluded.
Community radio theoretically survives on the contributions of its
beneficiary community in terms of labor, some donations, and programme
ideas. MAMA FM however, cannot depend on its community members,
who Sentamu described as marginalized, low income earners (if any),
vulnerable and with no platform of expression.
The maximum we ever got from the community all the time wehave been on air was USD 50. But in terms of other resourcessuch as time/ideas, this they do as they bring in program ideas,propose areas for improvement among other things. And they domobilize people to listen to Mama FM.
4.2.2.2 Specific Policy Experiences
Sentamu maintains that MAMA FMhas tried to meet the financial
requirements and demands of government, but with difficulty due to the
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insensitivity of the regulators to the needs of the station. She remembers
one particular incident,
MAMA FMmanagement was waiting for a positive answer from theauthorities to waive some fees but along the way it was closeddown in a very crude way! Very insensitive people they are!
Box 1: Insensitive Taxes
On December 20th 2001, Uganda Media Womens Association, UMWAreceived an invoice totaling to Uganda Shillings 7,623,000 (approx $4235)from the office of the President.
The amount was to cover the period July 2001-June 2002 for technicalservices received from government in form of tower/mast on which MAMAFM antennae are connected, plus the ground rent.
This was the first time we were made aware of the said costs otherwise weshould have included them in the 2001 and 2002 budgets. But when weprotested we were told to give ten reasons as to why we think we should beexempted from paying this money.
(Source:http://www.wougnet.org/Profiles/umwa.html) (Verbatim report).
Community radio in Uganda is not affected by communication policies
only; there are other policies outside communications that affect this
sector. One of these, according to Sentamu is the taxation policy where it
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is a requirement to pay import duty (25% of total cost of equipment
imported), VAT, and Income Tax among others. These are collected by
the Uganda Revenue Authority. Again these dont differentiate profit from
non-profit making ventures or institutions. They are all blanket policies.
Government seems to be pre-occupied with collecting revenue no matter
how, or from where she noted.
On top of the above taxes and the license and frequency fees, MAMA FM
has to pay for a trading license to the Local Administration area, pay for
technical services-hire of the government mast- and pay for ground rent
where the mast is located. But the licensing and Uganda Revenue
Authority taxes are the most prohibitive to MAMA FM, according to
Sentamu.
4.2.2.3 Partnerships and Linkages
Community radio depends on good mobilization machinery for both the
communitys involvement and funding. In the case ofMAMA FM, Sentamu
notes that the local leadership- in Kisaasi village, Kawempe Division of
Kampala district where the radio station studios are located- are very
active in identifying topical areas for discussion programmes.
Actually there is a programme run by the locals themselves calledFocus on Kisaasi Community, where various issues that affect allpeople of the community are discussed freely, she points out.
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She added that when they take announcements to the radio station, they
insist they should be run at no fee at all.
However higher up the hierarchy support from the leadership at the
district level is non-existent, according to Sentamu.
4.2.2.4 Personnel
Like all community radio stations MAMA FMdepends on the services of
volunteers as programme producers who are facilitated to carry out the
fieldwork for their programmes. Ninety two percent of the presenters and
producers at MAMA FMare volunteers who get very little money that is
far below a living wage.
According to Sentamu, only two positions are salaried station manager
and a technician. But even then none of these get a living wage. The
Station Manager earns $330 while the technician gets $110 a month, she
said.
Sixty five percent of the programme producers and presenters interviewed
pointed out that low pay affects how they deliver services.
Lynn Sewava a producer and presenter affirmed that the low pay is a
challenge to the volunteers because at the end of the month there are
accumulated deficits in their personal budgets, which affects their output
at MAMA FM.
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Christine Nabunya looked at it as a struggle and she wonders how she
manages to go through the month.
For obvious reasons, the field takes a lot of money especially theresearch for the programmes, but we report for work everyday by [thegrace of God], she observed.
Eighty percent of these said they would not hesitate to leave MAMA FMif
some worthy opportunity presented itself. Laura Kabanda said she would
certainly grab any such opportunity;
When I get greener pasture, like any other development-orientedperson, I do not think I can shun a well paying job once it crosses mysight. This is because my desires are many. I would like to furthermy education, and the current cost of living in Uganda is very high.
Kabandas concern about the law was on lack of a provision for a
minimum wage for people working in the media.
The average facilitation fee the producers and presenters at MAMA FM
get is Uganda shillings One hundred and twenty thousands (120,000/=),
equivalent to approximately $ 66 a month. From this they are supposed to
carry out fieldwork, and also save some for their living expenses.
Many say they have become very creative trying to make ends meet. But
Charles Ssuuna has quite often had to leave things in the capable hands
of [the Lord God his provider].
As a creative man, I try other means and where luck comes to myside I earn something and when the worst comes to the worst Isurrender each and everything to the almighty.
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With such restless workers, any manager would have trouble maintaining
consistency in service delivery. Margaret Sentamu reaffirmed this,
An unstable manpower destabilizes planning,putting the fulfillment of the stations mission atstake!Volunteers may not be obliged to report everyday,Uganda is a poor country, people have got to earna living and since there is no social benefitscheme in place for the unemployed, volunteersdecide to look somewhere else for survival.
Sentamu pointed out that even though MAMA FMmanagement is
determined to see its mission through, it has great difficulties. She said
management has even thought of re-registering the radio station as a 50%
commercial radio station, just so that the mission of helping the
marginalized be part of the development process is not completely lost.
Station management does its best to motivate the volunteers by providing
training opportunities in different aspects of broadcasting, and giving them
as much room as possible for creativity. But, Sentamu said, when it comes
to monetary motivation nothing much can be done.
All the presenters and producers however pointed out that they enjoy
serving the community through a radio station that aims to better the lives
of the marginalized. They also believe their community is very enthusiastic
of what radio volunteers are doing.
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Photo 2:Left; Some of the volunteers at MAMA FM at work in the studios; and right
one of their community members.
Source:(http://interconnection.org/umwa/community_radio.html).
Uganda Media Womens Association is involved in other projects. Sentamu
says that these are not spared the adverse effects of the unstable financing of
the radio station. She notes that in most cases the budgets of other projects,
which are themselves financed by donors, have had to be tampered with in
order to finance the radio station. Volunteers at MAMA FMare encouraged to
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perform roles under other projects that have monetary value. They therefore
end up doing dual roles i.e. forMAMA FMand another project.
Table 2: Minimum monthly Expenditure for the Programme Producers
(Average estimates).
S/N ITEMS AMMOUNT (USD)1 Transport cost to and from office 38.82 Transport to the field 88.93 Lunch 23
4 Medical Expenses 55.55 Household Needs 166.66 Rent 111
TOTAL 483.2
The above estimates are calculated basing on 28 days a month, and sixteen
days for the field work. However, it should be noted that this is the bare
minimum one needs for survival. The figures used are averages derived from
the information interviewees gave for question 12, on the producers section
of the interview schedule. (See appendix 1).
Given the fact that volunteers get $66 per month they have to live with a
deficit of $ 417.2.
4.3 Data Interpretation and Analysis
The findings of this research have close links to the other researches
and studies carried out by other people. Although the research material
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available on community radio that has been reviewed for this particular
research is not specifically about MAMA FM, the major themes of policy
gaps and how they affect funding and retention of personnel have come
out clearly as the issues threatening sustainability ofMAMA FM.
4.3.1 Testing of hypothesis
The data presented above indicates that community radio in Uganda
faces serious sustainability problems unless government comes up with
an articulate policy. Presently the regulatory frameworks that work as
policy for the broadcasting sector have no provisions for radio stations
that are not profit- making.
4.4 Discussion
4.4.1Policy gaps
The major concern of the Communications Commission regarding
challenges in sector was with competition and predominantly in the
telecommunications sector, and not on regulation in the broadcasting
sector.
In most of the regulations put down by the commission, the broadcasting
sector is quite squeezed into the phrases that mainly address
themselves to the telecommunications sector. Apart from the fact that
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government gets more money from the telecommunications sector than
broadcasting, this anomaly is also a reflection of the fact that the media
fraternity in Uganda is never consulted adequately whenever such
policies and laws that will affect their operations are being formulated.
Richard Baguma agrees that the final product of a policy that lacks the
input of the major stakeholders will not reflect the actual needs of that
sector.
This is probably why the license fee structure set by the Broadcasting
Council did not explore the different manifestations of radio
broadcasting.
The effect is that community radio ends up getting marginalized into and
under an already marginalized sector of broadcasting as far as policy
and regulations are concerned.
The policy and regulatory frameworks in place do not foster the process
of democratization but instead are designed to widen governments
revenue base.
Although the Information and Communications Technology policy
mentions community media the few times it does, it does so without
defining what community media is. This is a major loophole that
government can use to worm its way out of responsibility, ending up not
doing what it should do for community radio to develop in Uganda
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In all the regulations and policies reviewed above, community radio is
treated as a by-the-way.
4.4.2 Policy Experiences
The policy experiences ofMAMA FMindicate that community radio is
not specially catered for under the communication policy framework in
Uganda. As a result community radio stations have the same financial
obligations as commercial stations, making the financial sustainability of
community stations quite precarious.
Policy and regulatory decisions appear to be made in an ad hoc manner
without any systematic procedures and logic followed. This destabilizes
planning, budgeting and the overall operations of the station.
Government should actually be extending grants to community radio,
instead of expecting such stations to pay exorbitant taxes.
Community radio has the potential to bridge urban marginalized and
rural information poor communities to the better served often
information-rich urban communities. This potential however, is analyzed
in isolation with policy, which is the key factor in providing the firm
foundation upon which sustainability can be built. Without sustainability
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ensured through good policy, community radio cannot be an effective
bridge and the process of democracy is endangered
While the need for community radio in Uganda is there, it is not the
communities that initiate and drive the establishment of these radio
initiatives. To most Ugandans all radio stations are the same-owned by
businessmen. This means the necessary sense of ownership is lacking
and therefore communities do not feel obliged to exert the required
pressure on government to design proper regulations.
In its
4.4.3 Funding
Funding for community radio in Uganda appears to be an unresolved
problem. While the theory is that the community donates most of the
finances and materials, in poverty- stricken Uganda the community
instead expects free things from the radio station.
Communities served by community radio stations in Uganda live way
below the poverty line (on less than 5 dollars a month); meaning they
cannot afford to make any financial contributions to the station.
While donor agencies in many cases contribute the initial capital, donor
fatigue creates urgent need for these stations to be self-sustaining.
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4.4.4 Personnel
Community radio stations basically depend on voluntary labor, an
arrangement that is proving difficult to work out in Uganda. Instead,
community radio stations become a transit area for people interested in
broadcasting but need some training to move on. The funding status of the
radio station affects the stability of personnel.
4.4.5 Partnerships and Linkages
Lack of clear policy articulation for community radio makes it difficult for
radio stations to form strong partnerships and networks with local
leadership. As a result, instead of local governments developing funding
strategies for community radio stations they extract taxes that cripple the
stations.
CHAPTER FIVE
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5.0 CONCLUSIONS
5.1 Summary
This research set out to examine broadcasting policy in Uganda and
analyze how its state affects the future and sustainability of community
radio. Using MAMA FM radio as a case study the research specifically
focused on the licensing procedure for radio stations, the taxation systems
and regimes in place and sources of funding for community radio visa-avis
the policy.
The results as analyzed in the preceding chapter confirm my hypothesis
that the state of broadcasting policy in Uganda cannot foster the growth of
community radio, thus endangering the process of democracy.
It has come out that the costs community radio stations have to incur to
operate are too high, sometimes even for commercial radio stations.
5.2 Main Conclusions
In the broadcast sector in Uganda, regulatory frameworks were put in
place before an actual policy was formulated. The current policy
framework therefore has gaps regarding the operations of community
radio. Community radio does not have any specific provisions in the laws
that address its unique organizational and financial structures.
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By the time community radio was established these regulations that were
meant for commercial radio were there and so community radio had to be
regulated under the same rules. Being accorded the same status as
commercial radio however, puts heavy financial obligations on community
radio, making the future of such stations uncertain.
Since community radio in Uganda cannot ideally depend on advertising,
and neither can it depend on its beneficiary communities, financial
difficulties develop.
As a result these financial difficulties cause problems in planning,
budgeting and maintaining a stable and motivated labor force. Instability of
the labor force means high labor turnover, which causes problems of lack
of consistence in quality programming. The organization spends lots of
funds and time on training new recruits who leave the radio station as
soon as they gain the necessary skills.
Overall the picture is of financial problems and uncertainty.
If this kind of situation continues, community radio in Uganda may
become extinct thus endangering the process of democratization and self-
governance for those living on the margins of society like the women.
5.3 Recommendations
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However, a number of courses of action are possible to rectify this
situation. These may include the following.
5.3.1 Government:
Government should revisit the policy framework to ensure it is sensitive to
the different types of broadcasting. Government should make it a matter of
priority to consult development communication practitioners, policy
analysts and other stakeholders in all stages of policy formulation. This will
ensure- among other things- that policies arrived at are actually
addressing the needs of the people and also that the policies are well
coordinated and not contradicting each other.
There should be a clear developmental agenda if it is to facilitate
participation, self-governance and all those democratic principles then
ready access to information should be facilitated. Community radio does
just this.
Government should put in place a mechanism where corporate
broadcasting can cross- subsidize community radio so that operational
costs are not heavy on community radio. In line with this, community radio
initiatives should be exempted, or at least should benefit, from tax holidays
to give them time to establish themselves.
Policy makers should take time to educate themselves about the benefits
of community broadcasting.
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5.3.2 Community Media Owners:
Should consider a one time investment into erecting own facilities like
tower/mast to cut annual payment of USD 3,000 to office of the President.
Potential community radio activists should be fully aware of the policy
framework to avoid rude surprises!
Community broadcasters Forum should be quickly established /
strengthened to:
(a) Create general awareness about this radio broadcasting type.
(b) Sensitize general public.
(c) Create critical mass among self to engage government in policy
reform.
5.3.3 Government / Donors
For the national awareness campaigns managed by government and most
times funded by donors, a special consideration be made for community
radios as Mama FM. Such review would help sustain part of the
operations.
Donors should consider supporting sustainability moves made by the
community radios, for instance, a full time person to fundraise for a year.
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5.3.4 Research
There are more areas that need research in Uganda in the field of
community radio, and the results should be well publicized and
disseminated both to policy makers and the general public. One such area
is how local governments can be empowered and aided to support
community radio stations, without the stations losing their autonomy.
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