forma, fondo y estructura

7/27/2019 Forma, Fondo y Estructura

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SyntaxTraductor de textos eningls

5 semestre.

Conoce e identifica los trminos de fondo, forma y estructura.


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Syntax

Syntax is the study of the part of the human

linguistic system that determines how sentences

are put together out of words.

Syntactic rules in a grammar account for the

grammaticality of sentences, and the ordering of

words and morphemes.


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Syntax

Syntax involves our knowledge of structural

ambiguity, our knowledge that sentences may

be paraphrases of each other, and ourknowledge of the grammatical function of each

part of a sentence, that is, of the grammatical

relations.


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Syntax

It is also concerned with speakers' ability to

produce and understand an infinite set of

possible sentences.

The sentence is the highest-ranking unit of

grammar, and therefore that the purpose of a

grammatical description is to define, making useof whatever descriptive apparatus that may be

necessary (rules, categories, etc.).


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Sentence Structure

One aspect of the syntactic structure of sentences is

the division of a sentence into phrases, and those

phrases into further phrases, and so forth.

Another aspect of the syntactic structure of a

sentence is "movement" relations that hold between

one syntactic position in a sentence and another.


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Sentence Structure

The syntactic literature dealing with the study of how

sentences are structured throws us a hint that

syntactic research should not only concern on howsentences are merged out of their parts, units, or

constituents, but also on how constituents are moved

according to certain rules.


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Constituents

Constituents are structural units, which refer to any linguisticform, such as words or word groups.

Although the term string is often used technically to refer to

sequences of words, sentences are not merely strings ofwords in a permissible order and making sense. They arestructured into successive components, consisting of singlewords or groups of words.

These groups and single words are called constituents (i.e.structural units), and when they are considered as part of the

successive unraveling of a sentence, they are known as itsimmediate constituents.


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Constituents

When we consider sentenceMy friend came home late last night, we findout that it consists of seven word arranged in a particular order.

In syntax, the seven words in this model sentence are its ultimate

constituents. This sentence and in general any sentence of the language may be

represented as a particular arrangement of the ultimate constituents, whichare the minimal grammatical elements, of which the sentence is composed.

Every sentence has therefore what we will refer to as a linear structure.The small units are known as its immediate constituents.


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Immediate Consti tuent Analysis

Formal accounts of syntax are based on establishing thebasic constituents, namely, categories, from which wordstrings are formed.

Sentences are regarded as hierarchies of interlockingsmaller units, or constituents. After a sentence is cut into its constituent elements, the

two parts that are yielded are called immediateconstituents.

Then, we get the smallest grammatical unit obtainedthrough the division, or segmentation, which is seen asthe ultimate constituent.


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The segmentation of the sentence up into its

immediate constituents by using binary cuttings

until its ultimate constituents are obtained is an

important approach to the realization of thenature of language, called Immediate

Constituent Analysis (IC Analysis). The

analysis can be carried out in ways of tree

diagrams, bracketing or any other. For example: (1) Poor| John ran |out.



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construction

A construction is a relationship between constituents.

Constructions are divided into two types: endocentricconstructions and exocentric constructions. Endocentric construction is one whose distribution is

functionally equivalent to that of one or more of itsconstituents. A word or a group of words act as a definablecenter or head.

Exocentric construction refers to a group of syntacticallyrelated words where none of the words is functionallyequivalent to the group as a whole. There is no definablecenter or head inside the group. "Definable" here behaveslike an attribute in the construction.


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If the total construction (head plus modification, or

modification plus head) has the same distributional

characteristics as the head constituent (head), it isusually called endocentric construction. For example:

They left because they were tied.


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Within this construction, They leftis the head and

because they were tiredis its modifier.

Endocentric construction can further be divided into

two types: subordination and coordination.


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Any construction that does not belong to the same formclass as any one of its immediate constituents is anexocentric construction. There is no head in exocentricconstructions, and it is not substitutable by any one of itsconstituents.

There is no head in exocentric constructions, and it is notsubstitutable by any one of its constituents. No immediateconstituent may function in a manner equivalent to thewhole construction of which it is a part.

For example, in the sentence I went to Xiamen, neither tonorXiamen could be omitted: *I went to, *I went Xiamen.


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Sentence Types

Sentences in any language are constructed from a rather small set of

basic structural patterns.

When we consider sentence types from another perspective, it can beshown that each of the longer sentences of a language (and these are

in the majority usually) is structured in the same way as one of a

relatively small number of short sentences which are impossible to

reduce to a short form.

These short sentences have the basic sentence types. There aredifferent ways in dealing with sentence types.


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Syntactic Function

The traditional approach to syntactic functionidentifies constituents of the sentence, states

the part of speech each word belongs to,describes the inflexion involved, and explainsthe relationship each word related to theothers.

According to its relation to other constituents,a constituent may serve certain syntacticfunction in a clause.


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Syntactic Function

There are five functional categories ofclause constituents: subject, verb, object,

complement, adverbial. Object can be subdivided into directobject and indirect object.

Complement can be subdivided intosubject complement and object

complement. Adverbial can be subdivided into subject-

related adverbial and object-relatedadverbial.


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Tense and Aspect

The category of tense has to do with time-relations

and relates the time of the action, event or state of

affairs referred to in the sentence to the time ofutterance (the time of utterance being 'now').

Tense is therefore a deictic category, and is

simultaneously a property of the sentence and the

utterance.


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Tense and Aspect

The term aspect was first used to refer to the distinction of'perfective' and 'imperfective' in the inflexion of verbs inRussian and other Slavonic languages.

English has two aspects which combine fairly freely withtense and mood: the 'perfect' (e.g. I have/had read thebook. I will/would have read the book) and the'progressive' (e.g. I am/was reading the book, I will/wouldbe reading the book).

They also combine freely with one another (e.g. I have/hadbeen reading the book).


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Category

Number is a grammatical category for the analysis of suchcontrasts as singular and plural of certain word classes. InEnglish, number is a feature of nouns and verbs.

Gender demonstrates such contrasts as "masculine,feminine, and neuter", and "animate: inanimate", etc. forthe analysis of certain word classes. In most languages,grammatical gender has little to do with the biological sex.For instance, in French, the moon, which has nothing to dowith the biological sex, is grammatically feminine.


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The case category is often used in the analysis ofword classes to identify the syntactic relationship

between words in a sentence. It is a feature of the noun, largely functionally

definable (nominative for mentioning the subject,vocative for exclaiming or calling, accusative formentioning the object, genitive for ownership, dative

for indicating benefit, ablative for direction oragency).

I like her.

His book is well-written.


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Concord and Government

The forms of words can be restricted bygrammatical categories through concord or

agreement and through government. A verbis to agree with the subject in person andnumber. In English this rule only affects theverb according the number of the subject.

For example, The boy goes to school.

The boys go to school.


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Transformational Rules

Syntax is the part of grammar shared by speakers

and listeners in communication.

In 1957, the American linguist Chomsky proposed thetransformational-generative grammar (TG), thus

providing a model for the description of human

languages.

The goal of TG is to find out a system of rules to

account for the linguistic competence of native

speakers of a language to form grammatical

sentences.


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Transformational Rules

It is called "transformational-generative"grammar because it attempts to do two

things: to provide the rules that can beused to generate grammatical sentencesto show how basic sentences can betransformed into either synonymousphrases or more complex sentences.


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Deep Structure and SurfaceStructure

Deep structure is the abstract structure and can be

said to be the propositional core of the sentence.

According to Traugott (1980: 141), deep structureshows the basic form of a sentence with all the

necessary information to derive a well-formed

sentence, and to give it a phonological representation

and a semantic interpretation.


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Surface structure is the actually produced structure.In Bussman's (1996: 465-466) words, it is the

directly observable actual form of sentences as theyare used in communication, and from the perspectiveof transformational grammar, surface structure is arelatively abstract sentence structure resulting from

the application of base rules and transformationalrules.


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The relationship between deep structure and surface

structure is that of transformation. Since the

relationship is usually a complicated one, we can bestuse transformational rules in the total process of

relating deep structure to surface structures.


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End of lecture

Thank you!

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