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Apuntes deFilosofa y Ciudadana

1o Bachillerato

Instituto San RosendoMondoedo

Curso 2011/2012

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1o BAC

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Contents

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1o BAC CONTENTS

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Lesson 1

Introduction

1.1 Para qu sirve esta asignatura?

ste curso es una introduccin a la filosofa, que trata fundamentalmente lostemas de epistemologa, antropologa, tica y poltica.

La tica y la poltica, y hasta cierto punto la antropologa, son ya conocidaspor los que han estudiado la ESO, a travs de las asignaturas: Educacin para laCiudadana y los Derechos Humanos y Educacin tico-Cvica. Lo que se pretendeaqu es ampliar y sistematizar un poco estos campos.

1.2 Para qu sirve la filosofa?

La filosofa sirve para ayudarnos a dirigir nuestra vida.Los seres humanos somos libres. Como individuos y como sociedad, pode-

mos escoger lo que queremos hacer y cmo queremos vivir y podemos hacer loque es necesario para cumplir nuestros objetivos.

Para hacer una eleccin correcta necesitamos saber:

1. Cmo es el mundo.

2. Cmo somos nosotros.

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1o BAC Introduction

Si sabemos cmo somos nosotros, los seres humanos, sabremos qu nos hace

felices y qu nos hace dao. Si sabemos cmo es el mundo, podremos sabercmo sacar provecho de l, cmo utilizarlo para nuestros fines.

1.3 Fuentes de nuestros conocimientos

En nuestra sociedad no nos basta con lo que nos ensean nuestros padres, nicon lo que vemos en la televisin, ni con lo que nos cuentan nuestros amigos.En general, todo esto es suficiente para muchas cosas, pero difcilmente bastara

por ejemplo, para aprender una profesin o para saber cmo participar en elgobierno del estado. Por eso venimos al instituto. Para eso existe, en todas lassociedades modernas, el sistema educativo, desde el parvulario a la universidad.

Las ciencias que estudiamos en cada asignatura ofrecen el conocimiento b-sico que los seres humanos utilizamos para crear una tecnologa a nuestro servi-cio.1

En la asignatura de Filosofa y Ciudadana vamos a estudiar qu es el serhumano como ser racional, moral, social y poltico. Es decir, vamos a estudiar:

1. qu podemos pensar.

2. qu es ser bueno y malo.

3. cmo se puede vivir en grupos.

4. cmo se pueden organizar mejor los grupos sociales.2

Estos conocimientos son los que precisamos para vivir lo ms felizmenteposible. Despus, claro, bastara con llevarlo a prctica y tener algo de suerte.

1.4 Algunas caractersticas de la filosofa

En filosofa siempre debemos1Aunque en el instituto se estudien de forma introductoria, claro est, todo lo que se estudia

aqu tiene una aplicacin prctica.2Por supuesto tenemos que entender que vamos a aprender sobre estas cosas en un grado mo-

desto. Modesto porque no tenemos mucho tiempo y porque, lamentablemente, el ser humanono lo sabe todo, y los filsofos tampoco.

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Algunas caractersticas de la filosofa 1o BAC

1. aprender lo que se supone que debemos saber,

2. desconfiar de lo que hemos aprendido y

3. desconfiar de las razones para nuestra propia desconfianza.

Eso significa que sea lo que sea que creamos, debemos creerlo con razones, opor lo menos ser conscientes de que no tenemos razones para hacerlo cuandosea as. Esto se llama pensamiento crtico. Ser crtico no significa estar en contrade todo, sino examinar lo recibido intentando ver si es slido, si est respaldado

por la lgica y la evidencia emprica.Y por qu todos tenemos derecho a examinar las creencias recibidas? Porquecada uno de nosotros tiene valor es importante que seamos agentes y no slopiezas en un funcionamiento que disean otras personas. Puede ser que, despus,demos nuestro asentimiento a esos mecanismos, pero si es as, debemos hacerloconscientemente. En ltima instancia lo que promueve la filosofa es la lucidez,la consciencia.

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1o BAC Introduction

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Parte I

El saber filosfico: sentido y

finalidad

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Lesson 2

Introductory

Section What is this course?This course is an introduction to philosophy, dealing primarily with issues

as Epistemology, Anthropology, Ethics and Politics.Ethics and Politics, and to some extent Anthropology, are already known to

ESO students through subjects as: Education for Citizenship and Human Rightsand Ethical and Civic Education. Our aim here is to expand and systematizethese fields.

What is philosophy?The philosophy can help us to orient our lives.Humans are free. As individuals and as societies, we can choose what we

want to do and how we want to live and do what is necessary to meet ourobjectives.

To make a right choice need to know:

1. How is the world.

2. How we are.

If we know how are we, humans, we will know what makes us happy andwhat hurts us.

If we know how the world is, we know how to take advantage it, how to useit for our purposes.

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1o BAC Introductory

2.1 Sources of our knowledge

In our society we are not just what our parents teach us, not what we seeon television, or with what our friends tell us. In Overall, this is sufficient formany things, but hardly suffice for example, to learn a trade or to find how toparticipate in the state government. So we come to institute. That exists in allmodern societies, the education system, from kindergarten to college.

The sciences are studying in each subject offer basic understanding that hu-mans use to create technology to our service. footnote Although the institute

introductory study of form, of course, everything being studied here has a prac-tical application.

In the course of textit Philosophy and Citizenship let consider what is thehuman being as a rational, moral, social and political. That is, we will study:Begin enumerate Item what we think. Item which is to be good and bad. Itemhow to live in groups. Item how to better organize groups social. footnote Ofcourse we have to understand that we will learn about these things in a mo-dest degree. Modesto because we have a lot of time and because, Unfortunately,

humans do not know everything, and philosophers either. End enumerateThese are the skills we need to live as happily as possible. Then, of course,

would be sufficient to carry it practice and have some luck.

Section Some features of philosophy

In philosophy we always Begin enumerate Item learn what we are supposedto know, Item distrust what we have learned and Item distrust our own reasonto distrust.

End enumerate That means that whatever we believe, we believe withreasons, or at least be aware that we have no reason to do so as well. This iscalled textit critical thinking. Being critical does not mean being against everyt-hing, but to examine the received trying to see if it is solid, it is supported bylogic and empirical evidence.

Why everyone is entitled to examine the beliefs received? Because each of ushas value is important that we are agents and not just parts designing operationin others. You can might then give our assent to these mechanisms, but if so, we

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Sources of our knowledge 1o BAC

should consciously. Ultimately what promotes philosophy is lucid conscious-

ness.

Part Philosophical knowledge: meaning and purpose

Chapter Rationality Begin quote Textit A racionalidade: elements andprocedementos that defined (conceptualization, inference, argumentation, cohe-rence, etc.) to outras modalities fronte coecemento (crenzas, myths, tradicins,etc.) End quote

Section Definition

To be rational is to use logic and the testimony of the senses when thinking.Rationality is the better instrument than the human being to achieve their pur-poses. So worth knowing use.

The reality is as it is, and we can perceive through our senses. Taking noteof what we see, hear, etc.. get data that we can combine for knowledge. Theknowledge allows us to consider what is and better carry out our purposes.

Reality has a structure. Things are not only crowded, but who have. Theserelationships can be described with the knowledge that we call textit logical.Logic is a possibility of our thinking, but we can also textit saltrnosla. It iseasy to show that when we reason logically we most useful ideas for our lives.

Section Types of knowledge

Before we know what footnote The main objective philosophy., we haveto know what you know. This is say, we need to explore the limits of ourknowledge, what types of knowledge are, what differ, how they relate and whatconfidence can deposit each.

We believe that scientific knowledge and are irrechazables everyday. Impo-sed on us by the fact of being in the world and a society. The knowledge ofreligious, ideological, artistic and are on the contrary philosophical objectiona-ble, optional in any case. It is clear that his refusal is drawbacks.

Subsection Scientific Knowledge

Study the natural phenomena that are repeatable. Use hi method potea tico-of ducti vo, the systematic observation and mathematization. footnote See thenext lesson to learn more about science. we Sciences can create more effectivetechnologies to control reality.

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1o BAC Introductory

Essential contribution to European culture is sciences, which are also daugh-

ters of philosophy, developments of philosophical thinking that got autonomyfrom the seventeenth century.

Subsection everyday knowledgeKnowledge daily, also called textit common sense or Textit culture in the

sociological sense of the term, is the set of ideas and behaviors that we learn bylive in a society and that allow us to interact within it. They are for example,comity, eating habits, use of dresses, etc..

These ideas vary from one society to another and within the same society

from one historical epoch to another. Part of work philosophy is to criticizeconcepts of culture, and reject those shown inadequate because it is irrational ornot correspond with reality.

Subsection Religious KnowledgeReligious knowledge about conveying a unique experience of contact with

the supernatural. It is based on the transmission of authority and testimony restson the acceptance of that authority, that is, faith or trust is put in it. Hence it canbe rejected if there is no such faith. We can not say that religions are irrational

because the procedure of acceptance of an authority to establish our knowledgeis now generally accepted as valid. Of what it is to see whether there are reasonsfor that belief.

Among the highlight religions Christianity, Islam, Buddhism, Hinduism,and Taoism.

European culture is influenced by the Christian religion, in turn stronglyinfluenced by the philosophy. In fact, one can say that is largely made up ofideas inherited from Greek philosophy).

Subsection Knowledge ideologicalBy ideology we mean the set of political ideas we use to sort how to livein society. It is the knowledge that allows us to interpret the organization ofsociety. It involves a conception of man footnote called textit anthropology.And society.

Subsection art KnowledgeWe call it the knowledge we gain from the appreciation of the aesthetic

works. When we look at a picture or hear a piece of music we accumulate a

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capacity to judge the artistic beauty and criteria to do so. The artistic know-

ledge has much to do with education of sensibility. It is not true that all art issubjective.

Subsection philosophical knowledge

Philosophical knowledge is what we get for speculation, ie, thinking criti-cally about the ideas that we have and the data that gives us the perception.What characterizes philosophy is critical, ie even questioning their own results,and be deep, ie not remain satisfied with a simple answer or obvious.

For philosophical knowledge must always ask textit why?, Even where the

sciences, arts or religions claim that our question is meaningless.The traditional definition of philosophy, textit knowledge of things by their

root causes reaffirms the need to pursue the truth beneath and behind the cu-rrent responses.

Naturally, this pretense of depth makes sure we never have reached the bot-tom, and forces us to continue the philosophical reasoning. In philosophy wemust change the feeling of certainty by openness to new truths discovered byreflection.

Section The logicLogic is the description of the laws of thought, the correct inference, ie how

to properly remove a ideas of others. At the same time, the worlds structure islogic, and thats probably also why our brains evolved to adapt to that realityand logical. footnote It is therefore normal that if we are evolved beings in thisreality, our thinking matches the true.

Section Consistency and coherence Rational is seek coherence / consistencyand truth.

The consistency of ideas means that they can withstand criticism. Thisshould be logical and agree with the testimony of the senses.

The consistency of ideas means they agree with each other, they do notconflict. To be rational is to try to agree the ideas we have.

Section The conceptsTo think we only need the data of sense, but we have to group them, to

manage them better, in concepts. A concept (or idea) is a part of reality. Howcome the concepts is one of the topics discussed philosophy historically.

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1o BAC Introductory

The concepts can be born in any way but if we want to be rational, we

have to test them: they must be logical and correspond to reality as we perceivethrough the senses.

Section Induction What is the solution to the problem of induction?

The induction is to draw general conclusions from the study of many cases.The more cases we can study more confidence in generalization.

But we can never be sure that the future will be like the past studied. To berational is to bet on the regularity of nature. Like any bet is not a sure thing. Sowe have to be open to reconsider our ideas about reality, if there are any changes

that we do so.Section Probability We must differentiate the idea of ??probability as psy-

chological expectation, that is, as we have to wait or consider acostrumbradopossible, and the idea of ??probability in mathematical or physical sense, that is,what can happen because it may take, although we seem difficult.

Section Review Rationality

That means subjecting critical assumptions knowledge, as we have said. Tobe rational means being open to being convinced their own mistakes. If anyone

thinks he is right and that nothing will change your mind, then youre right ornot, your position is irrational.

Being irrational is bad because it is refusing to use the only means at hand toget to refine our ideas, to get them more real. On the other hand, people whoadopt often do irrational ideas carried away by his feelings, anger, fear, anger,resentment, or even good feelings, but they can deceive, like love, enthusiasm,optimism and confidence. Feelings are inclinations that can lead us to act. If weignore reality and only our feelings, our activity will be blind, and therefore

will be bad for us and others. Section Truth and rationality True is an ideathat corresponds with reality, however, explain the meaning of the word textitmatch is not easy.

To establish the correspondence, we take into account the criteria of cohe-rence, copy, practical success. That is, the idea has to be consistent with otherthings we know are true, you need to copy even schematically reality and mustsomehow allow her to relate successfully. Footnote By developing a technologyeg.

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Section Truth as copy The concept of idea, copy, seems inseparable from

knowledge, but you can never try to perfect. Ideas are always sketchy, leaveout elements of reality we are not interested in that situation, or not easy toperceive. The fact that an idea is not perfect does not mean it is not true.

Section authority It would not be possible to check yourself all we have toconsider. So much of our knowledge is based and must be based on the autho-rity.

The authority is the value we attach to people or documentary sourceswhich we believe because we consider claims founded. If we have a dictionary,

we trust to give us the meaning of unfamiliar words. When we read a definition,we believe it, and used the argument that comes in the dictionary if we haveto convince someone of significance.

The same applies to people who think they know a lot, as scientists or tea-chers. But even if someone claims to know something we do not know, ournatural tendency is to pay attention, that is, considering it as an authority. Foot-note This is what we do when we ask for any unknown direction. We believewhat we are told, that is, we value his words authority.

So far no problem. The problem begins when a person who normally hasauthority wants to use it to make us believe something and textit prevent checkit out or we question. Because the real authority is always a rational supplementtesting, but can not supplant illegitimately.

Given the authority we must always be clear that:

Begin enumerate Item Before rely on someone or something, we mustquestion whether it is a reliable source, that is, find out what he knows thatperson for that matter, where he got his knowledge, etc.

Item We should remember that everyone can make mistakes. FootnoteAnd people who write books.

Item that any authority has to be able to give reasons and data to support itsassertions, and that if it is unable to do so then it says it does not have believed.

Item That even if we accept what someone else tells us, accountability,epistemological and ethical, so we believe, and what we do is therefore textitour, not of the person from whom we trust.

End enumerate

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1o BAC Introductory

Section The beliefs and their validity

Are rational beliefs which rest on an authority reliable, verifiable. Of coursemany of the beliefs that we are not going to ever check, and even be impossible,so we must retain some reservation as to its validity and be willing to change ifit leads to reality.

Section end Rationality andRationality can not be just a utilitarian tool, which allows for our means of

action. We must bring to justice rational our purposes, ie see if what we wantis something rational in itself. There is a moral use of rationality that we must

not forget.Section Alternatives to rationality

What alternatives are there? Feelings, and narratives, stories. That is notrational myths. Although these cultural elements can be very valuable, shouldalways be put on trial because they can lead to misconceptions and harmfulaccept.

Irrational not necessarily mean bad. In fact, the most important of our lifeare feelings such as love and joy, which are irrational. What is bad is in passionate

feelings when in the face of reality.Of course, there are areas of life where it is not rational to be rational. Foot-

note An example would be choosing our favorite music.Section Social dimension of rationality

Both logic and the testimony of the senses have a social dimension. What onesees, another may see it. And there is little point providing unique individualexperiences, unless there is faith, that is no longer the same as rational trust.

Section Ethics and rationality

Being rational is the best way to make our lives go well, because its the bestway to adapt to reality and change it.We may also use the rationality applied to practice, ethics, directing it to

behave well.Rationality is an ethical choice: we can choose to be rational but also, per-

haps lamentablente, we can choose to be irrational.Rationality has to do with relationships with others (social) and the rela-

tionship with nature. Section Relativism

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Before proceeding to the study of human knowledge, we should address the

problem of relativism.It is called textit to relativism position that is to say that there is no truth,

but things are like everyone sees.

There are two versions of this position. Subjectivism and cultural relativism.

Begin enumerate Item The textit subjectivism states that every person,every individual sees things his way and that there is a way to reach a commonagreement on what is the reality, and to establish a common ethic. Item Thetextit cultural relativism states that what each believes view of reality and moral

ideas depend on what we have learned in our society and that is our culture.End enumerate

We can say that relativism is a misconception, supported by arguments thatcan be shown to are wrong. But also leads to relativism irrationalism, which isthe rejection of reason as instrument for improving human life.

In fact, the whole idea that varies who see it, is to conclude that not worthdiscussing, or even investigate the truth.

Sometimes, proponents of relativism want to avoid fights that result from

mishandled discussions. Indeed the attempt to impose on others what we believetrue can lead to many ills in society. So what we saw in Europe, example seven-teenth century wars religion between Catholics and Protestants, or the centuryXX with the wars caused by Nazism and Communism.

But the idea of ??relativism can lead fairly such violence to be avoided. Ifwe do not believe that there is an objective reality, then the discussion whererational arguments and data exchange others to get as close together of truth,does not make sense. What if we still want impose our way of seeing things?

Just stay the option to force others to accept it by force.No wonder both Communist doctrines as Nazis and fascists in the twentiethcentury denied the possibility of objective truth. footnote For communists wasonly textit true what in your opinion benefited industrial workers, and forNazis benefited the textit Aryan race. In the practical truth is replaced bypropaganda Communist and Nazi respective parties.

Section [Refutation of relativism] Refutation footnote textit Refutingmeans textit prove that something is false. relativism

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1o BAC Introductory

For starters we have to make clear that we are not criticizing the idea that

what we think textit depends of this or that personal or social circumstances.That is obvious and it is reasonable to say.

Relativism does not begin to go wrong when he claims that, since our ideasdepend on our psychology or our culture, theres no way to agree or to changeyour mind or admit that we are wrong and that it makes no sense to claim thatthere is a objective reality and that we should strive to reach it.

We analyze successively several expressions relativists: Begin enumerateItem The things are like everyone else sees. (1) Item Each sees things differently.

(2) End enumerateIf (1) is true, that would mean that if I see a red car and another person sees

a different color, the car is both non-red and red, which is obviously absurd.

On the other hand you can not understand what the point of view will de-termine how to textit are things. Do that perhaps one thing changes by lookingat it? footnote Leaving besides the Heisenberg uncertainty principle, that onlyapplies to subatomic particles.

In practice no one would accept subjectivism with normally. For example,

if someone insists on react to a table as if he were seeing a wild animal, call soonbystanders a toilet, thinking they were just a case of hallucination or run amok.

Things are what they are. So, why sometimes see differently?

This should be explained to understand why there is the relativism.

To begin, it is true that our view or comparison determines the judgmentwe make about the reality. Many judgments are relative, footnote It ie, using aterm of comparison, as a measure with which to compare things. Textit Relativenot mean textit relativistic. and make two seemingly contradictory judgments,

two people may refer tacitly footnote ie quietly, without saying it. criteriadifferent. footnote For example, to say that Textit John is young, our viewvaries depending usually of our own age. If we say Textit Peter is high, ourview normally derived from our own size, etc..

Once we express, footnote The opposite of Textit tacit, one can also sayTextit explicit. Is easy to agree universal judgments about relative. That As thereare fees such as meter, gram, etc. Measurement units allow us to make judgmentsaccurate about reality, and measuring devices also.

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Another source of differences of opinion, are the judgments aesthetic. Again

there is the problem that we do not Explicit reference elements. No doubt thethat textit This picture is ugly we say two things,

Begin enumerate Item I dislike their appearance. (1) Item is wrong. (2)End enumerate

(2) is in principle something objectified. Footnote ie you can agree on whatis in reality. The artworks are made following rules and standards taught inconservatories and fine arts schools, etc., and can be analyzed If a play followsthem or not. footnote If I attempt copy of Michelangelos David and I get theshort legs, people will say Ive done a sculpture bad, like criticizing the wrongdrawing a child.

But what about (1)? What happens when we say something we do not likeregardless of their views quality objectives? footnote Or lack of it. The questionis debatable and no agreement by of all philosophers. That is, one can say asculpture is shoddy, clumsily, or not follow the rules of what has intententadodo author, or directly to not follow any rules, and even well, that person can saythat he like. footnote Accept that honestly does not to ridicule, or to shock, as

they say, textit pour les pater bourgeois.

There is probably a relation of our judgments personal aesthetic elementsof our psychology and our society, footnote For example, we all see even goodfashion elements of dress, or hairstyle, which some few years later, we lookreally ridiculous. that does that makes our ideas depend on the ideas others. Butthat does not mean we can not investigate in a completely objective which arethese dependencies.

Chapter Scientific rationality Begin quote Textit A scientific racionalidade

ea shua demarcation. End quote Section Science

Define science as rational knowledge of reality. Section science classes Wedivide science by its object, in natural sciences, formal sciences and social scien-ces.

Section Natural Sciences Sciences are studying nature through experimen-tal methods, the hypothetical-deductive, systematic observation and mathema-tical modeling.

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1o BAC Introductory

Are biology, geology, astronomy, chemistry, physics, etc.. Section Formal

Sciences They are the mathematical sciences. They are based only on logicalreasoning, unrelated to physical reality. Its validity depends only on the logicand how to discover new truths is deduction. They geometry, logic, arithme-tic, algebra, topology, etc.. Section Humanities They are studying the humanrealities, the arts, economics, society, history. Their methods are hermeneutics,comparison and objective description.

The human sciences are not using the experimental by nature. Also try verycomplex phenomena that are not easily explained. Section Methods scientists

What characterizes scientific rationality is the study of nature, modeling, andmathematization experimental method (hypothetical-deductive).

It is part of the requirement of rationality falsifiability, ie a belief as poten-tially conceive false.

That science is not the only form of rationality (but not can contradict theother).

The science, the truths of science are always an approximation, depend onour limitations experience and observation skills (management and complex

mathematical models). Some limitations probably are inherent to our way oflife. footnote But, why would we want a knowledge nonhuman?

Vs Popper. verificationism.

Kuhn

The different ways of understanding the truth (coherence, correspondence,utility, etc., must be coordinated with the concept of reliability.)

Often the critiques are absolutes of facts but completely unimportant soleast in rebuttal. For example, the copy of reality schematic is provided, or thatis true but irrelevant. Why it had to be something else?

That the search for truth must take a moral stand. We must refuse to cheat,to commit fraud.

My position on the philosophy of science? A verificationism not taken tothe extreme, moderated by a falsificationism aided moral intention not to mis-lead (and lack of emotional attachment to the intellectual positions). Eclecti-cism?? I think we have to work more.

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Science is the best tool of domination of nature. Knowledge of nature allows

us to develop the technology which is the application of science to the satisfac-tion of our end.

To dominate one must know the nature and its forces and resources adaptedto our purposes.

But we never know what elements of nature can be helpful before meetingthem. So science research is primarily pure pursuit of knowledge.

Whenever there is something that is unknown, there may be a science tostudy it.

Characteristic of science is the hypothetico-deductive method, systematicobservation and mathematization.

Philosophy does not know even fully explain the workings of science, butdo not think that means that science does not work. Footnote This would belike saying there is no cancer because medicine can not fully explain what it isand why it occurs.

Section hypothetical-deductive

A hypothesis is an explanation of a natural phenomenon, it is not knownwhether it is true or not. Of all hypotheses can draw conclusions using logic.After an experiment done. If the results match the conclusions, the hypothesisis taken for real.

Section comment systematized

It involves taking data from nature, as fully and accurately as possible. Forthis we use measuring instruments specially developed and recording. Manynatural phenomena can not be put in a lab to be studied in experiments, so theonly way is to look carefully analyze how they occur.

Section Mathematization

Because they are more accurate than the naked eye assessment, mathematicsare used to record the data. When many data is, for example, statistics are used.Mathematics are also used to model the operation of phenomena that can notbe physically reproduced. Footnote Consider, for example, in the life of a star,from the onset, until it runs out of fuel and explodes. With these models cando computer simulations and if the results are consistent with the observations

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1o BAC Introductory

of reality, models are taken for good. Of course, mathematics is also used to

express natural laws when its simplicity makes it possible, using formulas.

Chapter The philosophical rationale Begin quote Textit A philosophicalracionalidade gives theoretical dimension: a search gives verdade eo sense da dagnoseoloxa realidade through metaphysical ea. End quote

Section Why not just science?

To conduct our lives, not enough knowledge we receive from the sciences.The reason is that science give us knowledge about what is reality and what wecan do with it, but do not tell us, and can not tell us what to do with reality.Thats because they do not speak of values, possible targets for our behavior,what is desirable, and what we want to do, and what we choose in case you cannot have everything.

The objectives of our life and our criteria may come from our culture, oursociety, arts, religions. But, if we also apply rationality, we philosophy. Thephilosophy can be applied to these areas and make them more rational or deep.

We all have to answer ethical, political and anthropological before you candip into our scientific and technological knowledge to act. The answers we giveto these questions will undoubtedly philosophical answers. In this sense we cansay that philosophy is unavoidable, we can not escape it. Our only choice iswhether our responses are deep or shallow, if they are rational or are absurd, iftheyre smart or stupid. The more we know about philosophy, the better ouranswers to the basic questions of life.

Section Characterization of philosophy What characterizes the philosophyis the concern for validity of the concepts.

Philosophy does not study nature only footnote Since the seventeenth cen-tury and the separation of the common stock of philosophical sciences, one cansay that philosophy does not study and textit primarily nature. And does notuse the method hypothetical-deductive experimental or mathematics but useslogic and speculation.

Philosophy is concerned with the depth. That means keep asking textit whyand not settle for the first answer given to us.

Consistency of concepts as standard to test the validity of systems.

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The philosophy is critical in that it examines its own concepts and cares

about its validity.

Is it rational whole philosophy? If we understand rational textit using logicand senses, we see that this approach does not solve much, if we do not knowwhat confidence can we have in the senses and what concepts are guaranteed bylogic, or even taxes.

Section Parties philosophy

They are, among others and in an unordered list: logic, metaphysics, onto-

logy, epistemology, philosophy of science, philosophy of law, philosophy of his-tory, philosophy of art, aesthetics, politics, sociology, psychology, ethics, philo-sophy of language, etc. Actually, almost any reality of the world can be treatedphilosophically, and many new technological inventions or social, footnote Asthe media or computers. Have received care philosophy.

Section Logic Logic is the greatest contribution of philosophy to rationality.Although modern logic is part of the mathematical sciences, originated in thedevelopment of philosophy in Greece, especially Aristotle and the Stoics.

The logic is the study of the correct inference rules. Inferring is get someideas from others. That is, the logic studies how ideas can relate to each otherand what knowledge we can draw from these relationships.

Today logic is an independent science, in mathematics, but her applications,which have to do with the current language, which still belong to the philosop-hical study. We distinguish two types of so logical, formal and informal.

Section Formal Logic

Is that uses signs to represent more adequately their objects of study. It

belongs to the well studied mathematics and human language or relations ofmathematical assertions. Today is also a very important use in computing andcommunication technologies.

Section informal Logic

The informal logic studies the relationship between language and thought,without using mathematical means. Studies mostly informal fallacies or ersticasbe discussed later.

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Section Why does the logic? This question is an application of the more

general question, why math works? Two explanations are very plausible andconsistent with each other, namely:

Begin enumerate Item because the world is constructed logically. Itembecause our brains are built to think logically. Footnote The logical rules can beplayed via physical mechanisms, such as electrical circuits. That is what makespossible the existence of calculators. End enumerate

Section Logical FallaciesFallacies are arguments that seem correct, but are actually incorrect. They

are often used in discussions to deceptively convince the interlocutor. They arealso called textit sophistry or textit paralogisms.

It is not the same as an argument is an argument wrong and which is false.False is not correspond to reality, and illogical is not complies with the laws oflogic. Sometimes the two coincide characteristics in some reasoning but is notto be.

Among informal fallacies can cite following:Begin enumerate Item textbf Argumentum ad Hominem

Consists insult or discredit rather than giving reasons.Item textbf Reductive Fallacy

This logical fallacy is committed when it comes to reduce"something com-plex to something very simple by saying, "this is simply ldots", focusing on alimited aspect of the global phenomenon.

Item textbf Argumentum ad verecundiamIs to give someone the authority instead of giving an argument based on

logic or testimony of senses.

Item textbf Argumentum ad PopulumThis logical fallacy is committed when someone plays with popular feelings,or tells listeners what they want to hear. (Also known as textit Fallacy of misu-sing democracy.)

Item textbf Fallacy Terms Emotional AbuseThis logical fallacy is committed when someone uses words that are designed

to cloud the issue emotionally, not contributing to a clear reflection.Item textbf Argumentum ab Annis

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This logical fallacy is committed when someone tries to refute something

simply assigning a date, usually as very old.

Item textbf Fallacy of the allegation biased

This logical fallacy is committed when dramatizes the material favors theposition, ignoring or minimizing the material that militates against that posi-tion.

Item textbf fallacy post hoc ergo propter hoc

This logical fallacy is committed when someone argues that something cau-ses something else simply because the former is earlier in time.

Item textbf Fallacy of Affirming the Consequent

This logical fallacy is committed when someone says one cause for a con-dition known when it might have a lot of different causes. (When scientiststry to confirm a theory must therefore affirm-that is, a result-but generally stillsearching for a cause or causes; continue experimenting for the only possiblecause.)

Item textbf fallacy Argumentum ad ignorantiam

This logical fallacy is committed when one reasons in the sense that if aposition can not be demonstrated, the other wins by default, yet there may bemore than two possible explanations, no independent evidence available.

Item textbf Genetic Fallacy

This logical fallacy is committed when someone claims that something is"just.or "nothing butts genesis (origin), or when someone cuts something be-cause of his humble origins or unfavorable.

Item textbf Fallacy Misuse of Analogy

This error is committed when it is assumed, without transition or explana-tion of any kind-that the same laws that pertain to a situation are equally validto apply to any similar situation, as when confused the descriptive nature ofscientific laws ( natural laws) with the prescriptive nature of social laws (whichgovern the conduct of society).

Item textbf Fallacy of begging the

This logical fallacy is committed when someone uses an argument that as-sumes as already shown what must be shown, often using other words. More

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commonly known as begging the question. An example would be: "This insti-

tution is outdated because it is an anachronism."Item textbf Circular Argument Fallacy

This logical error, very similar to the above, it differs in that it includes amultiplicity of elements, with a minimum of two. A demonstration is B, and Bis demonstrating A.

Item textbf Fallacy Argumentum ad baculum

This logical fallacy is committed when someone uses force or intimidationinstead of reason and argument (bullets instead of ballots, rather than persuasion

power, voting instead of experimentation). End enumerateChapter Practical rationality Begin quote Textit A philosophical racio-

nalidade racionalidade gives practical: a search of guidelines for a given ethicalaction through practical philosophy ea. End quote Section Theory and Prac-tice Rationality is born as a practical element. Answered questions like how toact? or what to do?

The theoretical rationale that would answer the question what there? thereor what? o What are the things?

The two are linked. We have to do the right thing with what we are. Thereare things that if we do, cause pain because they are not suited to our nature.

Rationalities are coordinated.Oriented philosophy, science gives knowledge of reality and methods, and

the ethical and practical common sense.

Behave rationally is to determine what our goals and follow the best meansto achieve them.

Section Anthropology Anthropology seeks to explain how humans. Anth-

ropological problems are whether man has an immortal soul, if we are only mat-ter, if our happiness is only physical pleasure, etc.. Depending on your response,ethical and political conclusions are different. Anthropology tells us what canbe our ideal ends.

Our goals are better suited to deal with our nature, way of being, as humanbeings and as individuals. That is, to establish our purposes we need to know.Section Ethics

We know already, in previous studies, the range of ethical issues that we face.

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Is it rational ethics recommended by all the philosophers? Paradoxically, yes,

even when they do not intend to be rational, feelings are followed, because it isthe foundation of the senses and logic oblige. To choose the means that we haveto use to achieve our goals, we need to know the reality, nature and man, alsosocial life, so that ethics requires, not only from other parts of the philosophyof knowledge but material, scientific reality.

Section Politics

When we think about society and the possibility of organizing it in differentways, and when we consider the reality of violence and the need for regulation,

we political philosophy.Chapter Philosophical problems Begin quote Textit Questions and pro-

blems fundamentais gives philosophy. End quote

Exposing problems is philosophy, and the answers that have been given tothem, would be to write a history of the discipline, which would occupy manyvolumes. In this lesson we will necessarily only a few of these problems andmention some answers to them, by the great philosophers of the past.

That something is difficult does not mean philosophically explain not exist.

Philosophy does not make things, but tries to explain. The latter is understan-dable, it is something often forgotten by some philosophers.

Section The problem of knowledge

Human knowledge is a complicated phenomenon studying neuroscience,psychology and philosophy, sometimes separately, sometimes together.

The branch of philosophy that studies knowledge is called epistemology orepistemology.

Part of the philosophical study of knowledge is held by the study of scienceas a process of gaining knowledge about reality.

We can choose the Aristotelian explanation of knowledge as an example ofattempted explanation.

Skepticism is a philosophical view that asserts that knowledge does not exist.It is patently absurd but has been maintained over many centuries by variousphilosophers. It is proof that it is difficult to explain consciousness.

Section The problem of mind

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The man has obviously not only physical activities like walking, take things,

etc.. We also have activities like talking, thinking, being aware of our feelings,thoughts, etc.. Say, the activities we can do sitting, not moving a muscle, or haveparts that do not involve the body, apparently at least. These activities are calledmental.

But what is the mind? Thats a question that bears becoming philosophysince its inception.

Among the ideas of common sense in our culture, is the mind or soul. Alsopsychology and neurology try to give a definition of what the mind is and what

are the mental processes.Philosophy also tries to find out what the consequences of accepting one or

another definition of mind to ethics and anthropology.Subsection Aristotles ideas about the soul

For Aristotle there are three parts to our soul, which are:Begin enumerate Item textbf vegetative part

that are similar to plants, is the part that is responsible for monitoring theactivities of the body so unconscious growth, metabolism, respiration, etc..

Item textbf sensitive partthat are similar to animals, is the party responsible for activities related to

us outside our body physically, everything that has to do with movement andsensation, as well as our animal impulses such as aggression or sex.

Item textbf intellectual partis the unique part of the human being, which is related to the use of reason

or intellect including memory, will and understanding, which are calls textitpower. End enumerate

For Aristotle, reason, ie, the intellectual part, must control the operation ofthe other parties, that is, not to let the man be moved by uncontrolled impulses.Section Science as activity

This problem has to do with our explanation of knowledge. How do wecome to know the reality? Is there supposed knowledge that can be shown tobe false? Are there special methods to learn or always use the same methods?

Subsection Karl Popper and the explanation of scienceSection The policy problem

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Man is a social animal, but the organization of societies is not defined by

our genes, as happens in the case of, say, ants or termites.

On the other hand, human life is essentially an attempt to overcome the scar-city of material goods, an attempt to achieve security against threats of natureand address the shortcomings of our own being.

Our intelligence allows us to establish different ways of organizing oursel-ves, but we must recognize that the complexity of the factors involved in societyis so great that very often do not get a satisfactory settlement.

Subsection John Locke and the organization of society

Section Human rights and justification

Iusnaturalism or utilitarianism?? Are they reconcilable?

In our culture, it is a common sense belief, supported also by the laws, theidea that all human beings have certain rights just by being born, and that ever-yone should respect them.

Philosophy studies the justification of human rights. He thinks so can con-tribute to the recognition of these rights everywhere.

Subsection Human rights as Aquinas

The explanation of St. Thomas Aquinas is a good example of how humanrights philosophy explains.

For Aquinas, God has done what is good and what is bad, forming the so-called textit eternal law. The Act includes what man should do and what theycan demand of others, ie, the duties and rights.

In order for people to fulfill their duties and preserve their rights, God pla-ced in the consciousness of each, a copy of the eternal law, which is called textitnatural law.

On the other hand, to realize the natural law and adapt its principles tothe circumstances of time and place, create statements ordinary laws, whichThomas called textit positive law. Footnote In Latin came to mean somethinglike textit start law. To be morally valid, ie that individuals are morally obligedto comply, it is necessary that the positive laws are in accordance with naturallaw, we can all see in our consciousness.

Section Anthropology

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Anthropology is the branch of philosophy that studies the human being,

which is the human being. Footnote There is also a social science called textitanthropology that studies human societies especially in its simplest, called textitwild living in remote areas and have not yet been included in a civilization.

Depending on the answers you give to anthropological problems, we willhave different bases to build ethics or politics.

Subsection The human being according to Thomas

St. Thomas Aquinas, achieved a synthesis between Christian thought andAristotles ideas about man.

For him, the human soul, the shape of the body, before that non-physicalreality, but created by God, immortal, and can live in the absence of the physicalbody.

The end of man is to achieve bliss, happiness through union with God.The way to get it is the virtuous practice of the Catholic religion, which isthe practice of virtue as Aristotle described them, more the theological virtues,typical of Christianity, faith, hope and charity.

Part Man: configuration and dimensions

Chapter The human process

Begin quote Textit O dobre biolxica and evolving cultural and hominiza-tion humanization. End quote

Man is a rational animal, ie has bad elements Legacy of animals, poor controlof aggression, fear, anger, and the new ability to control your life by reason.

There is a reject animality. Violence (and traits partners) anger, revenge,resentment. Also material features such as misery and absolute dependence onthe nature of the diseases, natural disasters.

A crave or yearn animality as sexuality, good contact with the elements ofnature, and life simple, without any problems or complications.

Our very nature includes a normative element so both. There are things inour nature that our own rejects nature. Human nature is not linear but looks atherself and judged.

What is natural law? That is, in what sense the nature can be (self) regula-tory? (Natural Law).

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Of course (paradoxically) be the basic reference are human emotions (love,

joy) so it is not that the reason is the centerpiece, but to help the good to succeedand emotions control the bad.

Consistent with human nature is the idea of ??good and evil. We have ten-dencies to good and evil. These control evil and promote good.

The questions, what store of primates? and how far we shapes our culture?

Vs Aristotelian conception of soul. Platonic conception.The philosophical problem posed by the narrative biologist is What role

does morality if we are just animals? Course deontological morality, the duty

that question, it seems that is touched.Ethics can be reduced to a relationship advice dependent of human nature.

Not required follow, it is not mandatory to follow the rules ethical, if somethinghappened? were not followed? But if the still the result is pain. What is rejectedby our own nature.

Why would nature to impose a behavior is a Real dilemma? (The dilemmasein / sollen).

If nature creates our culture and bad things in it, Is not it obvious that in

our culture there are also bad things? Do not is obvious that our nature hasobjectionable elements? But in the name of what? Not in the name of naturallaw (Depending on our nature).

What is the rule, the rule of good and evil? Does utilitarianism? How sustai-nable is utilitarianism? Remirar Elster.

Or should we simply accept the religious version?

Section biological conception of manBiological science now teaches that man is an animal species, the genus of

primates footnote This genus includes all the great apes, such as the chimpan-zee, gorilla, orangutan, etc.. And evolved based on a previous species by themethod of natural selection. footnote Natural selection is a model that seeksto explain the diversity of animal species based on a supposed common origin.It is assumed that occur in some individuals genetic alterations leading to newfeatures. Some of these features are harmful to the body and reduce their abi-lity to reproduce, which do not pass on to their descendants. Other features arebeneficial to increase playability, and thus transmitted to the descendants of the

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organism. For this procedure, organisms change to yield new species to breed

successfully trained.

These ideas appeared in the mid-nineteenth century in the works of the En-glish naturalist Charles Darwin. But science changes, and new theories appearin it. Footnote In fact the version of evolutionary theory that is now certain,not Darwins original, but a modification of it that includes ideas about gene-tics, a science unknown at the time. Therefore we can not simply accept as fulland undeniable truth any doctrine proclaims that the scientific consensus as

true. footnote In philosophy we must never think that something is the truthif we are not able to give good reasons for this, and yet we must be on guardto see if reality gives us data that force us to change our ideas. No doctrine reli-gious, scientific or philosophical be accepted as absolute truth. Is the nature ofphilosophy being suspicious. This is what a more sophisticated call textit becritical. Though naturally not for philosophy whether evolutionary ideas aretrue or false, whether or not there is sufficient evidence for acceptance, whichitself should make philosophy is to point where they come from scientific ideas,footnote For example, we know that the society he lived Darwin was very com-petitive in its economy, and it was believed that people who had no economicsuccess were awkward or bad and who had deserved to be poor, even who be-lieved that they had the hunger should pass or die. These ideas became fiercecompetition Darwins conception of nature, making the interpreted in terms ofcompetition, and not of symbiosis or cooperation. And what is the philosop-hical interpretation of which is done in our society. In particular, the ideas ofmodern biology on humans have led to many concepts that are really philosop-hical, not scientific, but they seek to rely on the findings of science. These ideas

may be acceptable in themselves, if we believe that there are reasons for it, butin no case can be said to be guaranteed by science. Here are some of them:

Begin enumerate Item That man is a mere animal. Item That man is apart of nature. Item That man has the same value as any animal or any animalsubject worth the same as a human. Item You have to behave like animals. Itemwe have to have the same relationship that animals have with nature. Item Thatman should not be as important in the world for us. End enumerate

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Materialism, naturalistic monism, the idea of ??progress (implicit in evolu-

tion, but lost in biology operative in popular culture) The loss of the centralityof the human. Also the centrality of intelligence in the definition of being hu-man. Also the centrality of intelligence.

Section Evolution The biological evolution is the theory that explains thatliving things undergo changes due to genetic mutations that produce new physi-cal characteristics in organisms. When these features are beneficial, the organismsurvives and their descendants inherit these new features. When characteristicsare harmful, the body dies and the new features disappear with him.

The physical and biological factors surrounding the body are collectivelycalled textit environment. The atmosphere is the element that selects the newfeatures that sets whether they are beneficial or harmful.

Section Hominization

The humanization would pass textit single a man, ie, one species of primatethat still can not be considered human to our species, as we know.

In the process of humanization we consider especially physical elements asbipedalism (walking on two feet instead of on all fours), the opposable thumb

(thus acquires a large hand grasping ability and manipulation of objects), frontalview and in depth, the loss of body hairs, growth of the skull, etc..

Section Humanization Humanization would step acquisition of culture, ie,the man went into a time of history, being an animal, to have elements not haveother animals, tools, intelligence, language, etc.., ie what we call Textit culture.

Chapter Nature and Culture Begin quote Textit A dialectic between cul-ture and as natureza and different concepcins do human being leading. Endquote

Section Nature Call nature to all physical and biological elements that arepresent around us.

Section Human Nature Human nature means our way of being human.

Because they belong to the same species all living share a common humannature. Things we like, who hurt us, feelings, emotions and capacities, as reasonand the ability to behave morally.

Section natural Needs

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Nature imposes needs and ways of doing the human. Section Limitations

Natural Being feels that parts of human nature are wrong, something that shouldget rid or against what should fight. These limitations are for example our mo-ral defects or diseases as tendency to violence, the inclination to anger, revenge,resentment, selfishness, etc..

One can therefore say that our nature is divide and sometimes directedagainst itself. There are things within us good and bad. Culture and human in-telligence trying to fight these limitations and in some cases have been achievedor are getting hits.

Section The culture in the service of nature The reason has been constructedas a rational culture of serve our nature.

Culture is the way we survive, our way of being animal.

The satisfaction of human needs is, like all animals, something we have todraw from nature. The domination of nature is therefore what characterizeshuman culture, in contrast to the adaptive nature is what is normal in animals.

The thing to understand is that human nature has priority, importance onculture. Culture is half serving as an instrument of nature.

Section The culture changes the nature

Culture is symbolic elements, tools, institutions, forms of organizing.

Like any complex system reaches generate culture needs own self-maintenance,which are added to the needs natural but also make possible within a systems.

Section human culture and local cultures

There is therefore a single human culture, with expressions, sometimes ca-lled textit local cultures. Thus we can speak of European culture, Spanishculture, of Galician culture or the culture of our people or our village.

Never think that cultures are somewhat isolated, unrelated, version tex-tit Software of races. There is human culture, with elements that are born inone place or another, sometimes the origin of something is indeterminable andalmost always Irrelevant, footnote Or at best, is a matter of curiosity. reallyoften all born under the influence so neither can be said to be originally ownedor others. In the field of culture there own or others. There used or unused.

Section cultural criticism

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Above is our culture of ethics and humanity, and behind it is our human

nature common to all people.People who believe that their culture is the most important may get to be

racist or xenophobic. Where they said race, is now said culture and ethnocen-trism is as wrong as racism. In every culture there are local bad things, we mustreject, and good things, we should accept. In all there are also things indifferent,for which no use arguing.

Cultural Materialism. No society or culture without satisfaction of materialneeds and creating others.

Both concepts, that of nature and culture are an invention, that is, we couldhave other concepts to analyze our relationships with others and with livingthings different from us. Therefore, we must be able to analyze what are theconsequences of adopting the ideas of nature and culture to interpret reality.Because these consequences are also the limitations of these concepts, and mightlose some data from reality to adopt.

Nature would be all we have to do with the animals, we studied the biologi-cal sciences.

Culture would be all that is itself a creation human, the symbolic, the use ofintelligence.

But we must be clear that human culture is an outgrowth of nature, not acompletely alien reality, let alone a reality opposed. Footnote Although theinfluence of the philosopher Hegel, sometimes we see well.

What happens is that culture itself can change the nature, thus we see thatnature (biological) is a system that can change himself. Footnote That seems tobe a basic feature of biology, self-reference. But if so, then it is a basic feature of

reality, the world as such.Section opposition of nature and culture

In some cases, there is a difference between what nature drives us to do whatour culture and advised us to do. Natural is not always good, but we can notalways give reason to our culture. We must place ourselves mentally over andabove another and rationally judge what is best for us as human beings, capableof distinguishing right from wrong and to act in freedom according to the adviceof our reason.

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Section Human Freedom

The human being is not subject to the limitations of nature or culture be-cause the human essence is freedom. That is, we can always choose to reject oraccept what the culture or nature offer us.

Concepts such as Good, Truth, Beauty, Freedom, Justice, are values ??thatwe recognize and accept even if not in nature or in our culture.

Chapter individual and society begin quote textit A social dialectic dialecticgives persoa ea Individual and Society persoa. end quote

Section The Although individual humans we are social animals that live

forever surrounded by other people, each of us is a potentially autonomous,free and rational.

Rationality is individual, as will, etc.. The human being is a subject, a agent.Who feels, who thinks, who acts is always a individual.

Each person will bring together elements of diverse origin that make us whowe are. When studying our ways we can differentiate elements in origin.

Section biological elementsThese are all items that we have for our animal nature, as physiology, physi-

cal appearance, our health, etc..Section Geographical elements These are the elements that are in our lives

for the sake of living in a world distinct from others.Section Elements psychological

These are the elements that have to do with our mood or our character.Section biographical

These are the elements that have to do with what happened to us throughoutour lives.

Section social elementsThese are the elements that are present in our life to live in a society distinctfrom the others. Within these traits can also distinguish following:

Subsection Historic Elements They are dependent on what happened inthe past in our society.

Subsection economic ElementsThey are dependent on the production and distribution of material goods

the society.

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Subsection politicians Elements

Are those that have to do with the organization of society in relation topower.

Section cultural elements

Are those that have to do with the customs and traditions that we havelearned.

Section The Company

Society is a group of individuals living together, which relate.

Human beings are social by nature. This means that needs of others, whocan not live alone.

The society is composed of individuals and requires organization. To workindividuals have to give up some of their desires or inclinations (his will).

The reason is that the human being is a gregarious animal, which is subjectfully to society, to the group.

On the other hand, human beings evolved to be part of small households,but the culture we live in groups makes very large corporations, including peo-ple with no We have close relationships or family, but with which we to live.That results in friction and complications for which no are biologically prepa-red.

The company transmits the individual cultural elements. But this is alwaysthe possibility of rejecting and accepting elements others.

Another problem is that we are biologically designed for groups now live insmall and large companies.

Section The society against the individual

Society imposes many requirements to the individual but always we mustbear in mind that society exists for the individual and not vice versa. There aretermite and attempts to become such are somewhat doomed.

Society exists for people, for individuals. The Unlike speech usually endswhen the individual, many of them, are sacrificed to the will of a dictator or atotalitarian party.

Chapter The language Begin quote Textit A linguistic and symbolic rela-tionship do suxeito co contour categorization world and media do. End quote

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Section Definition Language Language is a set of signs, articulated that can

be used to construct meaning open, by combination. Section Language andfeed

Ethologists, scientists who study animal behavior, explain that many ani-mals use sound elements or gestures to communicate. Many of these elementsallow channeling information between agencies. However, we have not yet dis-covered any animal language that is as complex and advanced as human langua-ge. Section Language natural and artificial languages

Human language has evolved naturally and is embodied in languages ??andwriting systems. Linguists, who are scientists who study the languages, offer noclear criteria to distinguish the different varieties of a language, so when coun-ting the languages, we find odd numbers. There are also quite a few languages??that belong to some large human communities and living in very isolated pla-ces and for that reason are not known or have been little studied. For thesereasons can be given a certain number of how many languages ??there are inthe world, but there are estimates that put the number at around 6000. Manyof these languages ??are not literary languages, ie not written, taking only oralexpression among its speakers.

Writing systems are also varied, having methods alphabetic, syllabic andideographic, with different ways to represent sounds, words or ideas.

Section language elements

Distinguish elements of language, meaning, the signifier and the referent oflinguistic signs.

Subsection Meaning Its what we mean, the intention of the speaker, orthe person writing. Subsection signifier is the sign we use, whether sound orwriting. Subsection Referrer is the thing to which we refer, the object related ex-tralinguistic meaning. Section Is the Process Communication share meanings.With communication we circulate information between a sender and a receiver.Subsection code The code is the set of signs we use. It may be a language, analphabet, or in the case of communication subsystems including some specialcharacters.

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Subsection Channel is the physical environment in which communication

takes place, can be speech, or paper or technological means, electronic, for exam-ple.

Subsection Emitter is the person who generates the information, choosingsome signs to represent. Is the speaker or writer, etc.. Subsection Receiver isthe person receiving the information, decoding, ie perceiving signs playing. Isthe listener or reader. Subsection Post The message is the information contentis circulated.

Section Translation is the process of encoding a message in a different co-

de that was originally used for transmission. Human languages ??are mutuallytranslatable, though not linear, ie, there is no exact match between all the wordsfrom one language to another, but it is possible to explain all the words fromone language to another using words.

The translation is more difficult to come into play when formal elements oflanguage, such as sound or relationships between words.

Section Language and textit worldview There are many languages ??inthe world and all correspond to the same kind of thinking, as evidenced by its

translatability and coincidence of science.That all languages ??are translatable not mean they are linearly translatable.

But with footnotes page are all.

It is not true that a language represents one way of seeing the world. Asevidenced by the fact that between two speakers of a language some peoplethink very differently.

Another test is to be translated religious ideas, policies, etc. very differentfrom the same language, and different languages that in which they were born.

Section Language and thought Human thought is the ability to handle signs,relate and get each other.

Sign systems that humans have created are several (math, signs, gestures andof course, the oral and written language.)

Signs allow channel information and thus allow society to organize and in-dividuals we communicate and we can dominate nature.

Language is the main vehicle of thought and social communication.

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Language is not equivalent with the thought, as is emphasize that we can

think in terms of space or mathematical etc.

It is not true that you can not conceive what can not be named. Langua-ges ??are open systems that can change their resources according to the needsof speakers. Section Misconceptions about languages Human languages, likemany other elements of culture, have been used frequently by some leaders andpolitical movements to differentiate a human from other groups and, what isworse, to attack people for these differences. In this connection we must submitto review some ideas: Begin enumerate

Item The concept of purity does not make sense, nor of themselves orothers, regarding language. No pure or impure languages, and use either wordin a language is an issue stylistic, purely literary and personal tastes. This isunacceptable to this as a moral issue or to fault or assaulting anyone for speakingor writing as desired. footnote Which, of course, does not mean that we shouldnot teach children and young people to speak and write with precision andelegance.

Item No languages ??better than others. Indeed, what criteria could be used

to determine which language is better?Item The languages ?? textit backward can be updated to designate technical

phenomena, etc.. their media creation vocabulary or just taking vocabulary ofother languages.

Item gives both speak a language as another. The preference for a specificlanguage is purely personal and is as free as any other cultural choice.

Item The use of language has a moral sense. It must be said the truth, notto offend the talk and seek harmony. We should never use words as weapons,

for lies or offense. End enumeratePart of moral philosophy to political philosophy

Chapter Freedom and responsibility Begin quote Textit Os fundamentalsgives moral action: Liberdade and Responsiblity. End quote

Section The man and animal

Humans have evolved based on other animals. Therefore shares these cha-racteristics that make up what we call the human animal dimension.

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As animals have certain physical features and functional footnote That is,

certain forms of functioning as organisms.. We also have a range of needs ofmaterial and also emotional. Finally, we have certain impulses or instincts, saycertain learned behaviors, but they can be very complex.

Section Basic elements of the theory of evolution of species

In the genetic code, representing the instructions necessary to produce aliving, there are sometimes random mutations. Footnote Produced random.Of these, some new being produced in the physical or functional characteristicsdifferent from those of the other of its kind. These features different textit

collide with the environment. Footnote Topography, climate, other species inthe biotope, etc.. Some of these features will be beneficial to the survival of theanimal that has. Others, however, can be detrimental to survival. If the traits arebeneficial are called textit adaptive and harmful are called textit maladaptive.Adaptive traits are passed on to the children of the new beings and to competewith other individuals not so adapted, extended reach, thereby changing thespecies or even create a new one. Section philosophical ideas offered biologyWe must be clear that from the point of view of biology, nature is not a person

who designs things or to establish projects. The evolution of species must beunderstood as a process that takes place by chance and is not intended to getanything. Living things are simply complex biochemical phenomena. Nothingguarantees that a species need to survive or have that new species appear. On theother hand, be adapted or not adapted is not synonymous with being good orbad. A trait may be adaptive in one place on the planet and be very maladaptivein another. It may be adaptive in a moment of history and become maladaptivein another, changing climate or topography or other circumstances arise that

change the environment.The ideas of modern biology are clearly materialistic, correspond to thephilosophical doctrines of materialism. The question is therefore:

Begin enumerate Item If you are avoidable, that is, if we interpret the biolo-gical findings, we have for true otherwise. Item If despite being materialistic, orforce us to sustain the consequences defended philosophical materialism. ItemIf accepting that are unavoidable, we are able to make them compatible withother non-materialistic ethical ideas. End enumerate

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1o BAC Introductory

Section Freedom and will. The human being is free to choose their behavior,

which is not means you have no influence or is easy to want what you want.Not the same desire something to want. the desire we place only in the

realm of the hypothetical, dream or fantasy. When youre wanting to take stepsto achieve this through our behavior, although it is difficult to achieve.

Section ResponsibilityWhen free actions affect others, we have to give accounts if asked. That is

accountability.The human being is free, as individuals and as a species, to choose their

behavior.There are many areas of life in which our behavior does not affect anyone

and these behaviors are indifferent and are beyond the moral judgment andresponsibility.

Chapter heteronomy and autonomyBegin quote Textit O traffic gives moral heteronomy to autonomy. End

quoteEthics is not a personal choice, as the dress or the music listen.

Which means textit self is that we have to be clear about why have to begood and to be good is rational, convenient and beneficial.

Autonomy does not mean that each person chooses their ethics. Ethics isone, which does not mean that there are cultural expressions Personal or varied.

Section HeteronomyThese two concepts are a creation of the German philosopher Immanuel

Kant (XVIII century).Both refer to the ethical life and the individuals relationship with the rules.

Textit Heteronomy means that the individual obeys rules that do not con-sider themselves and do it for fear of the consequences because he believes getbenefits if fulfilled. Section Autonomy Autonomy means that the individualobeys the rules because considered themselves, not because they are created byhim, but because he identifies with them and thinks they are good and worthfollowing them.

These ideas make sense in Kants system, they consider the consequencesof actions should not have to do with the choice of rules that determine them.

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Footnote Which is obviously false. The idea of ??duty is a transposition of re-

ligious thought and a nominalist conception of God. footnote God as textittotally other.

There is an interpretation of these key concepts in emotional burden thatautonomy is more mature phase. This is also false because maturity has to dowith the use of reason, it is critical and not the blind accept what we are given.Indeed, representing maturity is the ability to question whether the rules arethe best or if we could organize things differently, see for example, whether therules are appropriate to the nature and are therefore the best we can have or

conversely could be other.Section expression policy autonomy

Democracy is the political form of expressing human moral autonomy. Sa-me as individuals can think what should be our comportamento, as companiescan discuss and reflect together about what is best to do, and then vote for themeasures to take.

Chapter Happiness and Justice Begin quote Textit As ethical theories daSociedade challenges you face now and xustiza felicidade.

End quote

Section could define happiness happiness as the overall feeling of satisfac-tion with circumstances of our lives. We are happy when we feel that our life isnot nothing left missing or very important.

Of course, in everyones life there are elements more or less annoying, butas long as their presence is not very unpleasant or not cause much suffering, wecan say that we are happy.

To achieve happiness, according to the theories eudemonists, we must havea physical, health and fitness. We also need good loving relationships with ourfamily and friends. It is also necessary to have a job with us sat satisfied and thatallows us to develop and contribute to the happiness of others. Last is necessaryto have some leisure time possible to satisfy our cultural interests or sports.

Section Justice

Traditionally eudaimonian Aristotle, justice is to give each thing, ie whatyou deserve. Justice is divided into:

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1o BAC Introductory

Begin enumerate item commutative, which must do with the contracts, as

a contract work or exchange.Item distribution, which has to do with the cast.End enumerateSection The relationship between happiness and justice

Since happiness requires material basis, is impossible to be happy if we aredeprived of an injustice economic goods or if we are badly treated unfairly.

Section The Open Society: answerEuropean society, from the eighteenth century organized institutions that

have proven to be best that man has invented so far to ensure the material basisof happiness. Are, essentially

Begin enumerateItem The democratic political system,Item The capitalist economic system,End enumerateSection The institutional dimension: democracy Section The material di-

mension: free market

Happiness is a view of human behavior.Justice is the basic rule of society organization for happiness. The material

basis for happiness.The requirement of happiness leads to the assessment of the liberal demo-

cracy as a form of government.Section The eudaemonism

Eudaemonism ethical theory is adopted as preferable, closer to the truth andtherefore more applicable to reality.

The end of human behavior is happiness.Happiness is a feeling derived from the reasonable exercise of good humanskills and developing good habits. Footnote Good habits are called textit virtue.

The virtues are intellectual and moral.The intellectual virtues are prudence, fortitude, justice and temperance.Prudence is intelligence applied to practical life, the strength is the ability

to persist in what is good but difficult or resist what is evil but must resist,temperance is moderation in everything you do, do not go no understatement.

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The ethical virtues are: diligence, moderation, solidarity, humility, genero-

sity, gentleness.Christianity adds the three theological virtues, which are faith, hope and

charity. Footnote Charity means love. Faith is the belief in things not seen.These virtues are considered gifts of the Holy Spirit. Footnote ie God.

Chapter The idea of ??citizenship Begin quote Textit A Cidadana idea:xnese historical and philosophical foundation. End quote

We are citizens before they have been. Or the state is a historical and geo-graphical specificity of society, but the citizenship depends on human rights.

A citizen is a human being conceived in its relations with the others whodepend on their rights and duties.

A citizen is becoming one of the people who are part of a political commu-nity (= state) democratic.

In nondemocratic states no citizens but subjects without rights, really, butdepend on the decisions of a government not participating.

The citizen has rights recognized by the government footnote not granted,but recognized., And also participates in the choice of government. The citizen

has the duty to respect the laws and to participate in political life.The rights imply duties. No other one without.

The rights exist because human beings are as is (for the human nature) andby the fact that some of this nature is to be social animals.

Section How to be a good citizen? Begin enumerate Item Be aware thata democracy allows citizens to effectively control the government and laws thecountry. In a democracy the people are the boss, the citizenship. That theory isnot around, as happens in dictatorships, but is real. In our country the boss is

the people, not politicians. But for that to be so true that citizens need involvedin politics. If all we walk away and stay outside, dedicating only our privatethings, then the policy if it can become a work of a caste specialized.

Item To form your own opinion according to a political ideology that isconsistent with our principles ethical. All human beings have moral ideas onissues private, we know what is fair and unfair. We can easily extend our ideasto public issues, policy or economy. If we learn what the different ideologiesright policies we can choose our own, which is more in line with our way of

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1o BAC Introductory

thinking and feeling. Then, it is read and learn about our ideology, to be able to

discuss with the other citizens and to seek the truth together.Item Informed responsibly on current issues that may have relation to poli-

tics. In addition to our ideology, to review reasonably on political issues whichneed data happening in the world and in our country. In search of data we haveto seek the truth, and to be honest if the data are the opposite of our ideo-logy. We must not allow our ideas deformed perception of reality. If things aredifferent than expected, we must be willing to change our ideas.

Item If our circumstances permit, be part of a party political. So personally

collaborate in implementing our ideology to political life. Political parties indemocracies modern, are the basic organs of participation. The parties standingfor election, leaving them mayors, deputies, chairmen of government, etc.. Ifparties have Many members may more adequately represent the citizenship andbe more connected to this. We can help the guiding ideology of a party andbring ideas, projects or criteria that party used to influence society.

Item Learn about programs that are parties to the elections, same of mino-rity parties or little publicized. The parties have programs, ie sets of projects

that they propose to out if they come to power that will guide their work orif they are in opposition. If we agree with the program, we can vote for thatparty. Sometimes people criticize the games because when they win the elec-tions do not meet their program. But if voters know about the program, theycan control whether party took account or not.

Item Talk with people in our environment interesting political issues, al-ways with respect to the opinions of others. We can not have a mature opinionand reasoned if not shared with others if we do not listen their objections and

try to answer them. Also, naturally, if believe in ideas, its okay to share themwith others.

Item To vote in all elections, general elections, regional, to European Parlia-ment, municipal possible referenda, etc.. Unless participate, we can not criticize.Many people do not consider represented by politicians, but really, the optionspolicies are such that it is unlikely that there is a match with which we can agree.If you do not vote, do not contribute to politicians are adequate representationof citizenship.

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Item Learning about the performance of different governments and criticize

not deem appropriate. Our reviews, of course, must be rational, moderate andinformed. We must not give reviews based on prejudice unjustified or personalfeelings. Many people take advantage political issues to express moods or evenideas negative never dare trying to express themes nearby or acquaintances. Weshould not get carried away by the negative passions in judging political issues,because we have to have note that if we do, we will be contributing to a negativeclimate in our own society that is really our living environment.

Item Try to modify the decisions of governments not agree with our ideo-

logy. (By participation in protest campaigns, demonstrations, letters to news-papers, writing and debating on the Internet, sending letters to our politicalrepresentatives in parliaments or rulers themselves, etc.). Although politiciansare elected to represent and govern during his term, we can continue to in-fluence them and their decisions. We can communicate with them directly bywriting, and so indirectly participating in public protests well to try stop a mea-sure being considered or to support that taking an As society considers positive.Of course we have to take note of the behavior politicians to take our decisions

about who to vote in the next election.Item Do not be pessimistic or cynical respect the policy or the people invol-

ved in it. If you are ill, our duty is to replace. If you do things wrong, our dutyand contribute to make them well. The cynicism and pessimism, may be reallybad when applied to the policy judgment because it can become a self-fulfillingprophecy. If all think politicians are bad, soon only going to want to be politi-cal scoundrels. If we believe that all politicians seek power just for their benefit,the policy will be activity and therefore honorable and decent people able not

approach her. We must be clear that in a democracy, participation in politicsshould be working for the welfare of all and that politicians should be servantsof citizenship. Political activity developed in accordance with the own ideologyand seeking to benefit everyone and not harm anyone is ethically commendableand people who undertake should be honored by all. Naturally, politicians, asall of us do things wrong sometimes. We should not judge them more harshlythan we would any other person, and we have that if we disagree strongly withwork done, While we try to do it ourselves

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