Notes

Epigraph

1. Jezyk.Jezyk, to dzikie mieso, które rosnie w ranie,w otwartej ranie ust, zywiacych sie skłamana prawda, [ . . . ]aajezyk, [ . . . ] to zwierze oswajanez ludzkimi zebami, to nieludzkie, co rosnie w nasi nas przerasta, to czerwona flaga, która wypluwamyrazem z krwia [ . . . ].aa

“Jezyk to dzikie mieso’’

Preface

1. In late 2007 independent Montenegro adopted its first Constitution, which madeMontenegrin the sole official language of the country, and provided for the equalityof Cyrillic and the Latin script in official use.

2. The young American historian, Alexander Maxwell, analyzed in depth the ideolo-gized constructedness of this notion in his 2006 enlightening article, ‘Why the SlovakLanguage has Three Dialects: A case study in historical perceptual dialectology,’ pub-lished in the Austrian History Yearbook. To this end, he employed the American linguistDennis Preston’s novel concept of ‘perceptual dialectology’ (1993). Preston, unlikehis colleagues, focuses on the popular perceptions of languages and dialects as a socio-historical force in the wake of which professional linguists willy-nilly follow, while,presumably, attempting to describe linguistic reality objectively.

3. In 1957, Kohn decided to devote a monograph to his adopted state, but his AmericanNationalism is of quite a laudatory character. He played it safe and did not attemptto debunk any myths dear to the Unites States’ national project.

4. In the Soviet Union scholarship was limited by the straitjacket of ideologicalprerequisites. This meant that the study of language politics had to be applicablein line with the theory that all the nations and ethnic groups living in the commun-ist state would supposedly converge, and then merge into a single Soviet communistnation (people), also united in its communist national language of Cyrillic-based Rus-sian. That is why, with a few negligible exceptions, all languages used for writing inthe Soviet Union had to be committed to paper in Cyrillic after the turn of the 1940s.Inevitably, the handful of scholars who were allowed to research the Soviet languagepolitics had to toe this official line, as implicitly explained by the Soviet ethnolinguistof Ossetian origin, Magomet I Isaev (1928–), in his 1969 article, ‘Problemy razvitiianatsionalnykh iazykov v SSSR v osveshchenii burzhuaznykh avtorov’ (The Problemsof the Development of National Languages in the USSR, as Analyzed by BourgeoisAuthors), published in Voprosy istorii. Understandably, Isaev’s numerous works on theSoviet language politics, as, for instance, Izykovoe stroitelstvo v SSSR (Language Con-struction in the USSR, 1979, Moscow) or similar by authors not so much championed

956

Notes 957

by the communist leadership as he (for example, B S Asimova’s Iazykovoe stroitel-stvo v Tadzhikistane [Language Construction in Tajikistan[[ , 1982, Dushanbe]) werepublished in few copies, and thus were condemned to obscurity.

5. Specialists from other disciplines also open novel vistas on language, for instanceevolutionary psychologists (sociobiologists). Their hypothesis (that draws from phys-ical anthropology as well) is that the modern language ability appeared with theemergence of anatomically modern humans, between 200,000 and 100,000 yearsago. However, at that time, their hypothetical ‘protolanguage’ was largely uniformand, perhaps, quite rudimentary. The face-to-face recognition of all the members in agroup ceased to be a viable strategy with the rise of population densities, for instance50,000 to 45,000 years ago in Europe and Western Asia. In order to protect growinggroups against ‘freeloaders,’ language was selected for to become the main instrumentof creating social boundaries around the groups, which entailed the rapid differenti-ation of protolanguage into an increasing multitude of gradually incomprehensiblelanguages. At that time, cultural evolution replaced its biological counterpart as thechief force, which alters man and his societies; hence, the subject matter of socialsciences was born (Dunbar 1999: 188–189, 224–225).

1 Introduction

1. Parts of this Introduction appeared earlier as articles; see Kamusella (2004, 2006a).2. Siempre la lengua fue compañera del imperio (Schlösser 2005: 51; Trabant 2006: 114).3. Nebrija’s grammar was the first one of any vernacular Romance language. He

dedicated it to Queen Isabel I the Catholic (reigned 1474–1504), and the grammar waspublished in the year when she and her consort and co-monarch, Ferdinand V theCatholic (reigned 1474–1504), completed the reconquest of the Iberian Peninsulafrom the Muslims, and when Spanish overseas imperial expansion began in thewake of Christopher Columbus’s (1451–1506) ‘discovery’ of America. Significantly,Nebrija also published the first Spanish-Latin dictionary (1495) and Regles de ortografiaespañola (The Principles of Spanish Orthography, 1517, Madrid). His works written inan early spirit of linguistic nationalism were espoused by both Spanish co-monarchsand thus contributed to the replacement of Latin by Spanish as the official languageof Spain.

4. Die Sprache also macht die rechte Grenze der Völker.5. Jedes gesunde Staatsvolk, jeder gesunde Volksstaat muß wollen, daß seine Volkssprache die

Staatssprache und seine Staatssprache die Volkssprache ist.6. [A] shprakh iz a dyalekt mit an armey un flot.7. In its technical sense, the term ‘codification’ means to ‘systematize’ or to ‘collect

existing laws into a coherent code.’ It is derived from Latin codex for a ‘boundbook’ consisting of separate rectangular leaves sewn together at one edge. The mean-ing of ‘standardization’ is similar, though with the emphasis of making ‘somethinguniform.’ Although when applied to language-building both terms are largely syn-onymous, I prefer to employ codification for the process in the course of which alanguage is reduced to writing, that is, codex-like books in the Western tradition. Incontrast, I tend to reserve standardization for denoting the political-cum-academicprocess, which thoroughly uniformizes orthography, grammar, pronunciation, andaccepted usages of a language, and imposes the resultant standard lanaguage on apopulation (usually organized as a nation) with the means of a political decisionenforced by administrative measures.

958 Notes

8. The term Mitteleuropa emerged in the German-speaking world during the first halfof the 19th century (cf. Blasius 1857). It superseded the earlier usage of ‘NorthernEurope’ for Poland-Lithuania, Prussia, Russia, and the Czech lands, or the theater ofthe Great Northern War, during the first two decades of the 18th century.

9. I do not give any references in this section, as the political panorama presentedconsists of well-known facts. Should the reader, however, wish to double-check them,I used, among others, the following works in writing this section, Magocsi (2002),Sugar and Treadgold (1974–), Sukiennicki (1984), and Wandycz (1992).

10. The Roman province of Dacia (106–271 CE) extended, however, to what is presentlywestern Romania.

11. I use the term ‘Kievan Rus’ as popularly accepted in English-language literature, butstick to the Ukrainian-language version of the name of the Ukrainian capital, Kyiv.The name of Kievan Rus is derived from Kiev, or the Russian version of the city’sname.

12. I use the linguistic forms of place names that were official at the time that the narrativefocuses on. At the first mentioning, I provide the modern name in parenthesis. How-ever, when a town or other geographical object is known by its anglicized nameI stick to it (for instance, Warsaw, not Warszawa). The only major exception to thisrule is the Slovak capital Bratislava. In the period before 1918, I use either the Germanname, Preßburg, or its Magyar counterpart, Pozsony, because the seemingly inven-ted Slovak form, Bratislava, was imposed on the city from above in 1918 in order todistance it from its German and Magyar past. Earlier, Slavic sources had referred toBratislava as Prešporok or Prešpurk. Never did such an imposition take place in thecase of Budapest (Magyar and German forms of the name are the same, though, priorto the unification of Buda and Pest, German-speakers referred to the former as Ofen),Prague (Praha in Czech, Prag in German), or Warsaw (Warszawa in Polish, Warschauin German, and Varshava in Russian).

13. It is worthwhile noting that the German occupation administration set the basis forthe speedy creation of its Polish counterpart in 1918, while Germany’s occupationquasi-state of das Land Ober Ost (Upper East) was instrumental for the founding ofthe nation-states of Latvia, Lithuania, and Belarus (Anon. 1917; Sukiennicki 1984:137–172).

14. On the temporal plane, the oral always precedes the written. So written, standard,or national languages emerged from dialects, however defined, not the other wayround.

15. The dialect continuum is a geographical area in the confines of which closely relateddialects shade into one another. In Central Europe one can distinguish the WestGermanic, North Slavic, and South Slavic dialect continua. The first extends fromGreat Britain, via the Netherlands and Germany to Switzerland and Austria. TheNorth Slavic continuum goes from Poland and the Czech Republic via Russia to thePacific, while the South Slavic one mainly coincides with the territories of Croatia,Serbia, Montenegro, Bosnia, Macedonia, and Bulgaria. Creole continua happen toopen between variegated dialect continua (Crystal 1987: 25).

16. This attitude toward language use has existed since the emergence of the first polities.It was always the elite concentrated in the power center (capital, royal court) thatdecided which language or which dialect of a language was ‘civilized,’ ‘cultivated,’ or‘developed’ enough to be employed by them as an official language. More often thannot it was the dialect or language, which most of the elite conventionally employed.Hence, different languages and dialects spoken by the non-elite population at largein the polity’s other regions always appeared to them as ‘funny,’ ‘backward,’ or

Notes 959

‘uncultivated.’ Accordingly, the elite ridiculed these languages and dialects as ‘peas-ant talk.’ In Western and Central Europe the Roman politician and philosopher,Marcus Tullius Cicero’s (106–43 BCE) model of language cultivation (‘eloquence,’ orpower of persuasion) was accepted as the ‘norm’ to which written languages shouldaspire. In his De oratore (About Oratory, 55 BCE), he proposed that ‘good Latin’should be characterized by, the correct use of language, clarity in use of language,ornatus (distinction, ornamentation) in use of language, and the appropriate use oflanguage. In the 15th and 16th centuries, humanists revived this Ciceronian modelbent on ‘renewing’ Medieval Latin, which they saw as ‘corrupt.’ Later, in the courseof the Reformation and the Counter-Reformation, vernacular writers adopted thisprogram for ‘developing’ their own languages (Haugen 1976: 361; Patten 2006: 225,230; Trabant 2006: 139–156).

17. I put the words ‘their,’ ‘abroad,’ and ‘re-settle’ in inverted commas to problematizetheir seemingly unambiguous meaning. Many nation-states appeared as a surpriseto those concerned. Not all of those defined as speaking the national languageidentified with supposedly ‘their’ nation-state. Likewise, the postulated co-nationalsremaining outside the new polity’s frontiers did not feel themselves living abroad. Inaddition, ‘repatriation’ (‘re-settlement’) of minorities undertaken in the course vari-ous population exchanges was anything but ‘going back home’. Those supposedly‘repatriated’ were forced to leave localities where they had lived since their birth, liketheir parents, and long lines of ancestors. In reality, ‘repatriation’ (‘re-settlement’)was forced emigration or expulsion.

18. Those who agree that England was the first nation-state ever, which spontaneouslyemerged in the 16th century, remark that Queen Elizabeth I of England (reigned1558–1603) could be seen as the ‘mother of the English nation.’

19. Curiously, in the names of the League of Nations and United Nations only the term‘nation’ features, though membership in both organizations has been opened exclus-ively to nation-states. The confusion stems from the fact that in English and Frenchthe word ‘nation’ is also a synonym for state. This usage reflects the history of Englishand French nationalism, in the course of which pre-national polities transformedtheir populations into nations, and themselves, by default, into nation-states. Thisusage spread to former English and French colonies turned independent nation-states. It also spawned another terminological confusion in both languages, that is,the synonymy of the terms ‘nationality’ (the fact of being a member of a nation) and‘citizenship’ (the fact of being a member of the citizenry in a given polity).

20. Significantly, only ethnic nations, that is, united around a shared language, religion,customs or any other cultural variable, can be stateless. A stateless civic nation isa contradiction in terms. Any civic nation is secondary to its state. It was the statethat transformed its population into a nation united by shared citizenship. The stateconstitutes the legal and practical basis of the institution of citizenship, which unitesthe population into a nation. Should such a state disappear, the institution of cit-izenship would disappear, as well, which would mean the dissolution of the civicnation. Obviously, the ethno-cultural commonality produced during the time whenthis population lived in the same state, could be used for transforming the civicnation deprived of its nation-state into a stateless (thus, necessarily ethnic) nation.

21. Understanding what another person says is a multifaceted cognitive process. I usehere percentages as a figure of speech, because in reality it is impossible to reduce thephenomenon of intelligibility to such a simplistic mathematical formula (cf. Haugen1966a).

960 Notes

22. It is not true of social dialects that mark one’s social position in a given locality.However, it seems that social dialects stem from regular territorial dialects, whosespeakers, at one point, migrated to the locality, and preserved language differencesas a reflection of their different social statuses and origin.

23. The role of language being so pronounced in Central and Eastern Europeannationalisms, numerous linguists active in the region also doubled as national leaders.This was especially true of these national movements, which could not credibly andunambiguously claim long-standing continuous traditions of statehood and culturethat bound with their national languages. Hence L’udovít Štúr (1815–1856) com-bined his role as the first undisputed leader of the Slovak national movement withthat of codifier of the modern Slovak language. Josef Jungmann (1773–1847), thecodifier of standard Czech, was one of the first leaders of the Czech national move-ment. But Samuel Bogumił Linde (1771–1847), who codified standard Polish, wasin the service of the Polish magnate, Józef Maksymilian Ossolinski (1748–1826).Ossolinski clearly realized the political significance of Linde’s lexicographic workand sponsored it, but it was Ossolinski, not Linde, who was one of the leaders of thePolish-Lithuanian nobility, who gradually transformed itself into the Polish nationalmovement in the first half of the 19th century.

24. Having probed into the political nature of the concept of ‘a language,’ it is interestingto reflect on the popular estimates on the number of languages spoken in the world.The most trusted reference on this subject, Ethnologue, established the number at 6912in 2005. It corresponds well to the number of discrete ethnic groups as identified byanthropologists. When it comes to written languages, in 2003 there were ‘adequatetranslations’ of the Bible into 405 languages, of the New Testament into 1034 lan-guages, and fragments of the Scriptures into further 883 languages. Altogether moreor less the Christian Holy Word was available in 2200 languages in 2003. But thenumber of fully codified written languages is much smaller. The world’s largest lib-rary, the Library of Congress, has holdings in about 450 languages. On this basis,jointly with Infoterm Vienna, this library maintains the ISO 639 standard of grantinginternational codes to languages. This is as close as it gets to international recogni-tion of a language. In the IT age, such a recognition of a language amounts to thefact that its script can be displayed on a computer screen. The Unicode/ISO 10646standard supports the character sets of about 600 languages. But the United Nations’Universal Declaration of Human Rights is available in over 300 languages. Perhaps,in the world there are no more than 350 written languages of some political signi-ficance, around which ethnonational movements or ethnolinguistic nations havecoalesced, or could coalesce (Ethnologue(( 2005; ISO 2000; Submitting New Charactersor Scripts 2005; Translation Perspectives 2004; Universal Declaration of Human Rights2005).

25. In the case of Ukraine and Byelorussia, I speak rather of non-Ukrainians andnon-Belarusians rather than non-Ukrainian-speakers and non-Belarusian-speakers,because numerous Ukrainians are monolingual in Russian, and the majority ofBelarusians chose to speak rather in Russian than in Belarusian.

26. In 2008 Kosovo (Kosova in Albanian) was granted independence, on the tacit con-dition that it would not join Albania to form a Greater Albanian nation-state. Theprospect of permanent separation of Albania and Kosova may translate into the emer-gence of a separate Kosova nation (as in the case of the Austrians who emergedfrom the German national commonality after 1945), which may be reinforced bythe linguistic difference. The current standard Albanian language is based on theTosk (southern) dialect, though in the interwar period it was the Gheg (northern)

Notes 961

dialect which constituted the basis of standard Albanian. The Kosovans may chooseGheg Albanian as their national language. Unlike Bosnian, Croatian, and Serbianwhich are fully mutually intelligible and for the time being almost identical, Ghegand Tosk are only partially mutually intelligible and more different from each otherthan Czech from Slovak.

27. I give the percentages for comparative reasons only. The reader is advised to takethem with a grain of salt, because to this day statistics remains one of the favor-ite instruments of nation-building, and significant forced and voluntary populationmovements continue across the post-Yugoslav polities.

28. Until the late 17th century, Latin, Polish, and Ruthenian brushed sides as co-officiallanguages in Poland-Lithuania, and for various official purposes Arabic, Ottoman(Old Turkish), and Persian were employed in the Ottoman Empire. In modern-dayEurope, three official languages are used in Luxembourg (German, French, andLëtzebuergesch). Switzerland with its four co-official languages (German, French,Italian, and Romansch) is quite exceptional, but the speakers of Romansch account-ing for less than 1 percent of the Swiss, so the country is de-facto tri-lingual (Schlösser2005: 101).

29. The language was known to its users as ‘our language,’ or ‘Slavonic.’ It was theAustrian civil servant and linguist of Slovenian background, Bartholomäus (Jernej)Kopitar (1780–1844), who coined the term ‘Old Church Slavonic’ in the 1820s(Schenker 1980: 4).

30. The historical exigencies of the rise of the Ottoman Empire, construed as theCaliphate of the entire ‘House of Islam,’ required the official use of Osmanlıca(Ottoman, Old Turkish) for administrative purposes, Arabic for religious and judicial,and Persian for court life and literary pursuits. Graphically, all the three languageswere united by the Arabic script, which they shared. Considerable exchange oflinguistic loans among these languages ensued, too.

31. Literally, ‘whose power, his religion,’ or the principle that it is the ruler who decidesthe official religion(s) of his polity.

32. Historians of the Holy Roman Empire and German nationalism tend to speak ofBildungsbürgertum (literally, ‘educated city dwellers’) rather than of intelligentsia. TheBildungsbürgertum was a narrower social stratum than Western Europe’s middle class,but broader than the intelligentsia of East Central and Eastern Europe. By contrast,the urban character emphasized in the name of the Bildungsbürgertum, pointed to therelative dearth of cities and towns in the overwhelmingly rural areas east and southof the empire’s borders.

33. Cf. the revival of the solely religious language of Hebrew as the official language andthe vernacular of everyday communication in modern-day Israel.

34. Initially, the official status of Magyar in Hungary was short-lived. German (and some-times Latin) replaced it in 1849, and the situation continued until 1867 when Magyarregained its full official status in historical Hungary.

35. In these English colonies, where English settlers tended not to arrive, the use of localadministrative languages persisted. For instance, English replaced Persian in BritishIndia in 1835 (Ostler 2005: 502–503).

36. Latinization was also an instrument of carrying out Lenin’s promise of nationalself-determination for non-Russians, and, by default, suppressing colonial in itsnature ‘Great Russian chauvinism.’ For this purpose, Latinization was construedas de-Russification, since the Russian language was so closely associated withCyrillic.

962 Notes

37. Armenian, Georgian, and Yiddish preserved their specific scripts, and there wasno need for ‘re-Cyrillification’ of Belarusian, Russian, and Ukrainian because theyhad not been Latinized. Interestingly, the reversal of Latinization in the case ofthe Indo-European language of Ossetian (1937) meant ‘re-Cyrillicization’ in Russia’sNorth Ossetia, but the imposition of the Georgians script in Soviet Georgia’s SouthOssetia. Cyrillic finally repaced the Georgian alphabet for writing Ossetian in SouthOssetia in 1954 (Arys-Djanaieva 2004).

38. But the idea of English as the de facto sole official language of the United States wasnot absent from everyday practice. For instance as early as 1794, the United StatesHouse of Representatives dismissed the request of German-speaking farmers from theVirginian county of Augusta to translate the United States laws into German (Ostler2005: 492).

39. ‘Nationality’ is an ambiguous term. It may either mean the fact of one’s belongingto a nation, or a stateless nation. In this book, I employ this word exclusively forexpressing the former meaning.

40. Women tended to receive full voting rights later than men, for instance, in 1928in the United Kingdom, in 1945 in France, and in 1971 in Switzerland. Full citizen-ship and suffrage was withheld to Black Americans until 1964, Australia’s Aboriginesuntil 1967, and South Africa’s non-whites until 1994. On the other hand, popularelementary education and full literacy has not been achieved in most post-colonialstates yet.

41. The first widely influential and imaginative student of nationalism was Hans Kohn(1866–1972). Although a historian, like Gellner he was a Jew of the Austro-Hungarianbackground. Perhaps, the breakup of the Dual Monarchy due to the centrifugalforce of ethnic nationalisms made them both more perceptive of the dynamicsand nature of nationalism as a distinctive phenomenon. From a similar milieu,the Czech Marxian historian Miroslav Hroch originated. His Social Preconditions ofNational Revival in Europe (1985) provided the first empirically grounded theory ofthe formation of stateless ethnic nations.

42. The term ‘Indo-European’ was coined in 1814 by the British scholar, Thomas Young(1773–1829), but until the second half of the 20th century it was rivaled by anotherterm ‘Indo-Germanic’ (indogermanisch), popular especially in the German-speakingstates. The Danish geographer, Conrad Malte-Brun (Malte Conrad Bruun, 1775–1826), who worked in revolutionary France, proposed the term indo-germanique in1810. He developed it by noticing that the Indo-European peoples lived in a largelyunbroken belt from India in the East to Germanic-speaking Iceland in the West. Thisterm began to appear in German and English texts beginning in the late 1820s. Othercoinages to refer to the Indo-European language family, such as Japhetic, Sanskritic,Indo-Celtic, Ario-European, or Aryan, never gained similar widespread use (Simpsonand Weiner 1991: 840; Trabant 2006: 332).

43. For the first time explicitly formulated by Humboldt, this theory of linguisticrelativism in the 20th century was developed by the United States linguists BenjaminLee Whorf (1897–1941) and Edward Sapir (1884–1939).

44. Jedes gesunde Staatsvolk, jeder gesunde Volksstaat muß wollen, daß seine Volkssprache dieStaatssprache und seine Staatssprache die Volkssprache ist.

45. In the case of the Soviet Union’s non-European republics such national languageswere often created from scratch in the 1920s by Russian revolutionary linguistsand replaced established official languages such as Indo-European Persian (Farsi) orTurkic Chaghatay. Both languages were widely employed outside the Soviet Unionand identified as a badge of ‘Asian feudalism,’ which made them ‘suspicious’ to the

Notes 963

isolationist Bolshevik regime. The newly created languages included Azeri and Turk-men (very close to Turkish), Tajik (practically identical with Persian), Kazak, Kyrgyz,and Uzbek. In addition, in the European autonomous republic of Soviet Moldavia, theMoldavian language (practically identical with Romanian) was constructed (Landauand Kellner-Heinkele 2001; Martin 2001; Smith 1998).

46. Interestingly, the Allies did not apply similar provisions to their own nation-statesor elsewhere in Western Europe. The experiment in carving ethnolinguistic nation-states in Central Europe was to be limited to this region. In retrospect, the entireaction appeared to be a latter-day mission civilizatrice directed at the ‘Wild East,’ thatis, somehow ‘un-European’ Central and Eastern Europe. The transformation of Russiainto the Soviet Union, though largely home-grown, also was conducted in line withthe Western ideals of marxism. However, the specifically Soviet system of nationalrepublics and multilevel autonomies for minorities stemmed from the reflection ofAustro-Marxists on the national question in Austria-Hungary.

47. For percentages of non-national language-, and national language-speakers in theCentral and Eastern European polities in the post-war period, see the end of thesection entitled ‘The normative isomorphism of language, nation, and state, today.’

48. Interestingly, even in the monumental, eight-volume Geschichtliche Grundbegriffe(The Basic Concepts of Historiography) there is no article devoted to the conceptof ‘language,’ or ‘a language,’ though the work is subtitled Historische Lexikon zurpolitisch-sozialen Sprache in Deutschland (The Lexicon of Political and SociologicalLanguage Used in German Historiography) (Brunner et al. 1972–1997).

49. The status of Hungary and Slovakia as through and through ethnolinguistic nation-states is slightly weakened by the fact that Magyar and Slovak belong to the group ofthe six co-official languages used in Serbia’s autonomous region of Vojvodina (oth-ers include Croatian, Romanian, Ruthenian, and Serbian). But the populations usingMagyar and Slovak there are relatively small (292,000 and 57,000, respectively) incomparison to the Serbian majority, which accounts for 65 percent (1.32 million) ofVojvodina’s inhabitants. What is more, neither Magyar nor Slovak are construed asnational languages of Vojvodina (2006).

50. All the Scandinavian languages (Danish, Faroese, Icelandic, Norwegian, and Swedish)emerged from Norse as separate written languages at the end of the Middle Ages.Therefore, the degree of mutual (though variously limited in different pairings) intel-ligibility among them is as large as that among the contemporary Turkic languages,which came into their own between the 14th and the 20th centuries. The degree ofmutual intelligibility, though high, in general, is lower among the Slavic languages,which began to diverge between the 6th and the 9th centuries, and produced varie-gated written languages between the 14th and the 20th centuries (Haugen 1966a).

51. Most Norwegians use Bokmål, the users of Nynorsk constitute around 15 percent ofthe nation’s population. The policy of creating a Samnorsk (Common Norwegian) bycombining these two varieties, popular from the interwar period to the mid-1960s,was officially abandoned in 2002.

52. The case of the Netherlands is additionally complicated by the official concept of theNetherlandish language construed as consisting of Dutch spoken in the Netherlands,and of Flemish used in Belgium’s Flanders.

53. Maltese is a Semitic language, a close cognate of Tunisia’s vernacular Arabic, butinfused with numerous Italian (Romance) and English loanwords.

54. The spreading use of English, in emulation of the Indian and Nepalese examples,however, limit Bhutan’s claim to fulfill all the restrictive requirements of theisomorphism of language, nation, and state.

964 Notes

55. The non-native and non-national language-speaking population is less than 1 per-cent of the inhabitants in Japan and Poland. In Iceland, recent immigrants amountto 6 percent of the population, but virtually all of them speak Icelandic. This maychange, however, with the latest, quite rapid and sizeable arrival of immigrants fromPoland and other new member states of the European Union.

56. Although the majority of Indonesia’s population speak Indonesian (almost identicalwith Malay), the language’s native-speakers amount only to 17 million. In Indonesia,native-speakers of Javanese add up to 75 million, and of Sundanese to 27 million(Ostler 2005: 532–533).

57. In Slovenia, Slovenian-speakers make up 91.1 percent of the population,and Macedonian-speakers amount to two-thirds of Macedonia’s inhabitants(World Factbook 2005).

58. In Bhutan, Dzongkha-speakers constitute half of the population. The percentage isconsiderably higher, however, if the Bhutanese census of 2005 is right and the state’spopulation is 0.67 million, not 2.23 million (Population and Housing Census of Bhutan((2006; World Factbook 2005).

59. I do not attempt to extend the genetic classification of the national languages tothe ethnolinguistic nation-states located outside Central Europe, since there is stillno consensus to which classificatory groups (language families) certain languagesshould belong.

2 Language in Central Europe: An overview

1. [L]a lingua umana per voci convenute da’ popoli, della quale sono assoluti signori i popoli.2. [Z]usammenlebenden und in fortgesetzter Mittheilung ihre Sprache fortbildenden Menschen

ein Volk [...]. Die [...] natürlichen Grenzen der Staaten sind [...] ihre innern Grenzen. Wasdieselbe Sprache redet [...].

3. The ‘Byzantine Empire’ or ‘Byzantium’ is a 16th-century Western European coinage,which became popular in the 19th century. The Byzantines referred to themselves inGreek as ‘Romans’ (Romioi(( ) and to their polity as ‘Roman Empire’ (Basileía Romaíon(( ),or the ‘country of Romans’ (Romanía(( ). All the sobriquets stemmed from the Latinname of the Roman Empire, Imperium Romanorum. This empire’s short Latin name,Romania, evolved into Old French Romanie and spawned Early Modern English‘Romany’ for the ‘Roman Empire.’ In 212, all free people in the Roman Empire weregranted Roman citizenship and thus became ‘Romans.’ In 395, the empire was per-manently divided into the Western and Eastern Roman Empires with their capitalsin Rome and Constantinople, respectively. The tradition of the Western Empire wasextinguished with the deposition of the last western emperor in 476. His insigniaof power were sent to Constantinople. Hence, the Eastern Empire became the soleRoman Empire. In 772, the city of Rome ceased to commemorate the Roman emperorruling from Constantinople and the Pope crowned Charlemagne as Roman Emperorin 800. The Holy Roman Empire (founded in 962) originated from this event andWestern authors, instead of referring to Byzantium by its official name of ‘RomanEmpire,’ called it the ‘Greek Empire’ (Imperium Graecorum(( ), Greece (Graecia), the GreekLand (Terra Graecorum), or even the Constantinople Empire (Imperium Constantinopol-((itanum). Obviously, the Byzantines strongly disagreed and denied the title of ‘RomanEmperor’ to the Holy Roman Empire. The demise of the Byzantine Empire in 1453settled this ideological contest in favor of the West. So today, even to Greeks, theeastern Roman Empire is known as the ‘Byzantine Empire’ (Byzantini Autokratoria(( ).

Notes 965

‘Byzantium’ was the original name of Constantinople, named so after its founder,the Greek King Byzas (Byzantas). Constantine I the Great (reigned 306–337), whomade Christianity into the semi-official religion of the Roman Empire (313), alsomoved his empire’s capital to Byzantium (330), renamed as ‘New Rome.’ After hisdeath, the city became known as ‘Constantinople.’ In the 15th century, classicizingGreek authors preferred the name ‘Byzantium’ to ‘Constantinople,’ unambiguouslyassociated with Christianity, and as such opposed to Antique culture, which theChristian Church considered ‘pagan.’ Drawing on this usage, Hieronymus Wolf(1516–1580) coined the term ‘Byzantine Empire’ in his Corpus Historiae Byzantinae(History of Byzantium, 1537) (Byzantine Empire 2006; Honzák et al. 2001: 553–559;Simpson and Weiner 1991: 1609).

4. The Soviet language-planners developed quite similar Komi and Komi-Permiak intoseparate languages in order to split the Komi-speakers into two separate ethnic groups.In statistics, this made them into a tinier minority than they actually were vis-à-visRussians (Nyirady 2006).

5. Between the 1st and the 2nd centuries, Germanic groups migrated from Scandinaviato Central Europe, or the region extending from the modern-day Low Countries tothe mouth of the Don River flowing into the Black Sea. In the 2nd or 3rd century, theRunes developed in this area, perhaps on the territory of today’s Bohemia (where theMarcomanni lived and whose area of settlement bordered directly on the RomanEmpire) or in the northern Alps (where Italic and Germanic populations inter-mingled). It seems the Marcomanni and/or other Germanic groups borrowed thetechnology of writing from the Romans and other northern Italic ethnic groups alongwith their alphabets as the model. However, the origin of some Runic characters istraced back to the Greek script. The Runes spread among the Germanic peoples. TheGoths, who lived north of the Danube and along the northern shores of the Black Sea,came into direct contact with Turkic peoples, which might have caused the transfer ofthe Runic script to the latter, especially after the Huns defeated the Ostrogoths (East-ern Goths) in 375 and swept across Central Europe. The Visigoths (Western Goths)sought refuge in the Roman Empire and were allowed to enter Thracia, which exposedthem to the Greek language. Ulfilas (Wulfila, 311–383), a missionary bishop to hisfellow Visigoths, who was consecrated in 341, translated the Bible into Gothic, thescript he invented. He derived Gothic from the Greek script, and perhaps enriched itwith five Latin letters and one Runic character.

In the first half of the 5th century, the Huns’ vast empire extended from theCaucasus to the Rhine. In the 420s, they moved the power center of their realmto Pannonia. Pax Hunnica facilitated the tapping of Germanic, Roman, and Greekcultural practices and technologies, the knowledge of which spread eastward toethnic groups that followed the Huns after the latter’s empire collapsed in 453.

This traditional theory of cultural diffusion of the Runes and Greek- and Latin-stylewriting to the East is currently countered by the more widely accepted proposal thatthe Magyar ‘Runes’ are an offshoot of the Old Turkic script derived from the Sogdianwriting system, which, in turn, developed from the Aramaic script. Between the 4thand the 9th centuries, the Indo-European language of Sogdian (a cognate of Persian)and its script were in wide use between the Caspian Sea and the Pamirs. (Sogdian wasone of the Silk Road’s linguas francas.) In the 6th century, a Turkic population enteredthis area and mingled with the Sogdians, which contributed to the rise of the OldTurkic script, also known as the Siberian ‘Runes,’ employed in the vast territory fromthe Caspian Sea to Lake Baikal and even beyond. The Magyars rubbed with Turkic

966 Notes

groups, while migrating from the Upper Volga to the northern shores of the BlackSea (5th to 6th centuries), and thence to Pannonia in the 9th century. The Magyar‘Runes’ surviving among Transylvania’s Magyarophone Szeklers also gave rise to atheory that they were a Turkic group, which became Magyarized.

This Magyar alphabet is supposed to have been developed in the 9th century, alsounder the influence of the Greek, Slavic, and Latin literacies. Perhaps these influencesand both theories on the rise of the script account for its extensive borrowing ofcharacters from the Old Turkic (Siberian), Greek, Glagolitic, Cyrillic, and (Germanic)Runic scripts (Balázs 2000: 84–85; Damm and Mikusinska 2000: 83; Faulmann 1880:161–164; Hasenmayer et al. 1981: 22–23; Magocsi 2002: 5–7; Mojdl 2005: 62–64, 70,134–137; Tryjarski 1995: 116–122).

6. It is probably a coincidence that the Caucasian language of Albanian (Aghvanian)shares its name with the Indo-European language spoken in the Balkan nation-state of Albania. The Caucasian Albanians (Aghvanians) referred to their kingdomas Aghbania, whose territory coincides with present-day Azerbaijan and Russia’sDagestan. Their language is defunct, though some identify it with the modernCaucasian language of Udi, spoken by 8000 persons in Georgia and Azerbaijan. Theprobability of some Aghvanian influence among the Balkan Albanians is underscoredby Byzantium’s 9th-century action of resettlement of heretical Paulicians from theCaucasus to the Balkans. Most Paulicians were ethnic Armenians, but some couldhave been Aghvanians, too (Damm and Mikusinska 2000: 15; Grimes 1996: 469;Majewicz 1989: 56).

7. The actual official name of the polity is unknown. The first surviving writtendocument, in which the country was mentioned, is in Greek and dates back to themid-10th century. The Byzantine author spoke of he Megale Morabia (‘Great Moravia’).This usage was reflected in the Latin name of Moravia Magna. At the turn of the19th century, German scholars were the first in modern times to become interestedin early Slavic. They referred to it as Großmähren (‘Great or Greater Moravia’) orGroßmährisches Reich (‘Great Moravian Empire’). I employ the term ‘Greater Moravia’rather than ‘Great Moravia’ to emphasize that this state grew out from the territorialbasis of the region of Moravia (Großmähren 2006).

8. Some identify the medieval Avars with the modern-day Caucasian Avars livingmainly in Russia’s Dagestan. However, the former perhaps spoke Turkic language,while the latter spoke Caucasian. A tentative link between these two groups is offeredby the theory that a small group of original Avars remained in their homelandon the Black Sea’s eastern shores after most, threatened by Turkic invaders, movedwestward in the late 560s. Those who stayed in the Caucasus assimilated with theCaucasian-speaking population, but passed their ethnonym ‘Avar’ onto one groupof the Caucasian-speakers. 0.6 million persons speak Caucasian Avar (Damm andMikusinska 2000: 29; Grimes 1996: 468, 504; Tryjarski 1995: 49, 51).

9. The term ‘Bible’ is derived from Greek biblía hagía for ‘holy books’ (Bankowski 2000vol. 1: 46).

10. Dobrovský referred to Old Church Slavonic as lingua slavica dialectus vetus (the olddialect of the Slavonic language), Kopitar as Kirchenslavisch (Church Slavonic), andthe Russian scholar, Konstantin Kalaidovich (1792–1832), proposed the term ‘OldChurch Slavonic’ in 1822 (Moszynski 2006: 346–347).

11. The East Slavic bukva for ‘letter,’ is derived from buk (‘beech’). As parchment wasexpensive and paper still unknown, most early texts in Kievan Rus were carved onbeech bark. Earlier, the same technology was employed for carving Runic inscriptions

Notes 967

by Germanic Goths and numerous Turkic groups (including the Finno-UgricMagyars), who roamed the vast territory from the Danube to the Caspian Sea betweenthe 2nd and the 10th centuries. Swedish Vikings, who established Kievan Rus in the860s, also knew how to carve Runes on beech bark and found extensive beech forestsin the new polity. ‘Beech’ is buche in Germanic, and hence German Buch for ‘book,’and indeed the very English word ‘book’ (Mackensen 2005: 86; Mojdl 2005: 157–158).

12. Despite their ethnonym, the ancestors of this group arrived from the Rhineland,not Saxony, hence their dialect most similar to Luxembourg’s national language ofLuxembourgish. The current correlation between the group, its ethnonym, dialect,and the presumed region of origin arose at a later date, and was based more onhearsay and in-group mythology rather than the historical reality of migration, soonforgotten among the original settlers’ grandchildren. On the other hand, in someregions of Eastern Europe, the term ‘Saxon’ was a generic name for any German-speaker (Magocsi 2002: 104).

13. The ethnonym ‘German’ comes from Latin Germani. Roman writers perhaps took thisname from Gauls (Celts), who applied it to their Germanic neighbors. The etymo-logy is unclear but may stem from Old Irish garim for ‘to shout,’ gairm for battlecry, or gair for ‘neighbor.’ ‘Teutonic,’ often used as a synonym of ‘Germanic,’ isderived from Latin Teutones. Originally, it was the self-ethnonym of a Germanic eth-nic group who lived on the seacoast of present-day Germany and devastated Gaulbetween 113 and 101 BCE. This ethnonym ultimately derives from Germanic orIndo-European *teuta for ‘people.’ The German self-ethnonym Deutsch and ‘Dutch’also stem from the same root. The etymology of French Allemande for Germans goesback to the self-ethnonym ‘Alemanni’ of a Suebic (Germanic) ethnic group or con-federation of such groups that settled in Alsace and part of present-day Switzerland.The name might have been derived from Proto-Germanic *Alamanniz for ‘all-man,’denoting a wide alliance of ethnically related ethnic groups. Bulgarian Nemets,Croatian Njemac, Czech NemecNN , Magyar Német, Polisht Niemiec, Russian Nemets,Slovak Nemec, or Ukrainian Nimets stem from Slavic niemy for ‘mute.’ It is a reflec-tion of the Slavs’ inability to understand the speech of Germanic-speakers. Hence,Slavic-speakers perceived the latter as ‘mute,’ or ‘blabbing incomprehensibly’ (Ety-mological Dictionary 2001; Mackensen 2005: 98; Simpson and Weiner 1991: 34, 667,2034).

14. Although the German terms Niederdeutsch and Plattdeutsch both are translatedas ‘Low German’ (Niederdeutsch is sometimes rendered as ‘Lower German’), lin-guists prefer the former German term, while the latter is more colloquial. UsuallyNiederdeutsch denotes the area of the Low German dialects, and Plattdeutsch the dia-lectal speech of a Low German-speaker, a local Low German dialect, or a Low GermanKultursprache (language of a regional culture, whose speakers do not aspire to becomea separate nation on this linguistic basis), idealized to be spoken by all the LowGerman-speakers. In colloquial usage, Plattdeutsch is often rendered as Platt.

15. The self-ethnonym ‘Saxons’ comes from Germanic Sahsun (Sachsen in German), inturn perhaps derived from Germanic sax, seax for ‘short sword,’ a weapon preferredby Saxons (Etymological Dictionary(( 2001; Simpson and Weiner 1991: 1662).

16. The self-ethnonym ‘Franks’ is derived from Germanic *frankon for ‘javelin,’ apreferred weapon of this ethnic group. In Old French franc meant ‘free,’ ‘sincere,’ or‘genuine,’ and in Medieval Latin franc denoted a ‘freeman.’ Hence, it became popularto claim that the ultimate etymology of the ethnonym ‘Franks’ is ‘free.’ However,the reverse seems to be true, for the Old French and Medieval Latin franc (dated not

968 Notes

earlier than the 10th century) seems to be derived from the much older ethnonym(Etymological Dictionary(( 2001; Simpson and Weiner 1991: 631).

17. The oldest extant texts produced by wood block printing (xylography) werediscovered in Korea. They date back to the mid-8th century. The movable type andthe movable type iron printing press were invented in China in 1041 and 1234,respectively. The oldest extant book published with the use of such a press in 1377was discovered in Korea (Johann 2006).

18. Until the mid-16th century, publications in the Gothic script dominated, but Anti-qua made its initial appearance as early as 1464 in Subiaco and 1469 in Venice. In thefirst half of the 16th century, the use of Antiqua spread in the Romancephone areasof Western Europe (the Apennine Peninsula, France, and the Iberian Peninsula) andin the other half of the continent, for printing in Polish and Magyar. Until the 19thcentury, Gothic had dominated in Germanic-speaking areas, as well as for printingin Bohemian (Czech), Estonian, Finnish, Lithuanian, or Latvian. Prior to the rise ofGerman ethnolinguistic nationalism at the beginning of the 19th century, Catholicprinters operating in these areas and producing in these languages gradually ten-ded toward using Antiqua. Exceptionally, Antiqua penetrated into English-languagebooks in the 16th and 17th centuries. Otherwise the final supplanting of the Gothicscript by its Antiqua counterpart took place in the second half of the 19th centurywith the exception of the Germanophone states, where Gothic persisted until theearly 1940s (Faulmann 1880: 204–205).

19. The task of identifying in which language a book was written prior to the codificationof standard languages is always vexed with ambiguity, especially in the context ofclose cognate languages. In addition, the retroactive (and usually anachronistic)decision that an early book was published in this or that language is a reflectionof ‘a much later ethnolinguistic nationalism.’ Not surprisingly, the dates of the ‘firstprinted book in a given language’ vary. What is more, much of the meager early bookproduction in Central Europe’s vernaculars was lost and unexpected findings surfacefrom time to time. Hence, I note alternative dates for the first book in Polish (1522),Magyar (1527), or Bulgarian (1566) (Burke 2004: x–xi).

20. The emergence of standard German was a slow, gradual process, whose manystages were officially negotiated. This contributed to the broader awareness amongthe German-speaking intellectuals of the constructedness of standard German, anawareness that is usually absent even among the educated users of other standardlanguages. Not surprisingly, the German linguistic term Überdachung, or ‘bringingggvarious, usually closely related, dialects under a common roof of an agreed uponstandard language,’ aptly describes the process. In other national traditions of lin-guistics in Europe, it is usually maintained that a set of dialects (usually correspondingto the past or current territory of a polity, construed as a ‘nation-state’) belongs to thisor that language, without accounting for how this was effected. The approach breedsthe anachronistic conviction that standard language is the ‘mother tongue’ fromwhich dialects emerged by ‘corruption’ or ‘dirtying influence’ of other languages,spoken in the neighboring states.

21. Komitat was the highest unit of administrative division in historical Hungary, whichwas divided into 64 komitats. The term is derived from Latin comitatus, but in Magyarit is rendered as megye, which comes from common Slavic medja for balk delimitingneighboring fields (cf. meja in Croatian, medza in Slovak or miedza in Polish). Present-day Hungary is comprised of 19 komitats. Here, I adopted the German rendering ofcomitatus, Komitat, since German is genetically closest to English out of other Centralt

Notes 969

European languages. Another justification of the choice is the fact that after thewaning of official Latin, German was the official language of Hungary between 1849and 1866, and the most important foreign language from 1867 to 1918. In English-language publications, the forms ‘comitat’ and ‘comitatus’ also appear alongside theconfusing term ‘county.’

22. For the clarity of argument, I refrain from analyzing other important Romancelanguages (for instance, Catalan, Francoprovençal, Friulian, Gascon, Occitan[Provençal], Rhaeto-Romance, Sardinian, or Sicilian), which today do not enjoy thestatus of official language of a nation-state.

23. The official name of the Ottoman Empire in the Ottoman (Old Turkish) language isthe Devlet-i Aliye-i Osmaniyye, or the ‘Sublime Ottoman State,’ but the Western influ-ence transformed it to the Osmanli Imparatorlu˘uuu (‘Ottoman Empire’) in present-dayTurkish. Obviously, the Turkish word imparatorlu˘uuu is derived from Latin imperium, inpreference to Arabic devlet for ‘country, state.’ In Western diplomatic dispatches, theOttoman Empire and its government used to be referred to as the ‘Sublime Porte,’which is French for ‘Lofty Gate.’ This traditional name of the court of the sultan,as led by the grand vezir, Bab-i Ali in Ottoman, was derived from the sobriquet ofthe gate, which led in the imperial Topkapi Place to the headquarters of the grandvezir.

24. ‘Boyar’ functioned in Orthodox Slavophone lands as a designation for the membersof the native nobility, or earlier, for ‘knights.’ It also entered the Lithuanian languageas bajoras. The word stems from Old Turkic bai for ‘elegant, distinguished,’ and wasintroduced by Turkic-speaking Bulgars in the 7th century. Probably, it became con-flated with Slavic *bolЬjЬ for ‘bigger, better,’ before entering the Slavic speech ofthe Bulgarian Empire in the 8th century. In the 9th and 10th century, the wordspread to Central and Eastern Europe from this empire. Byzantine writers coinedthe Greek word boilades, or boliades, which became often a derogative term for Bul-garian boyars. On the contrary, in the 15th century, the term szlachcic was adoptedfor Catholic ‘nobleman’ in Poland-Lithuania from Middle High German slaht(e) for‘kin, lineage,’ today rendered as Geschlecht. The Polish word spread to the Czechlands as šlechtic (Brückner 1927: 34, 550; Sawaniewsko-Mochowa 2002: 15; Rejzek2001: 633).

25. After the 1806–1812 war with the Ottoman Empire, Russia gained the eastern halfof historical Moldavia located beyond the Prut River. It became known as Bessara-bia. Today, western Moldavia is part of Romania, while Bessarabia, molded as theSoviet Socialist Republic of Moldavia, became independent Moldova in 1991. ‘Mol-davia’ is the traditional Slavic rendering of the region’s name, as opposed to theRomanian/Moldovan form of Moldova (Magocsi 2002: 75).

26. ‘Transylvania’ is a useful shorthand for this vassal polity. In fact, it comprisedTransylvania proper (a semi-autonomous region gradually incorporated into Hungaryin the 11th and 12th centuries) and the easternmost lands of historical Hungary,known as Partium, which means ‘the Parts’ in Latin (Részek in Magyar). In the1570 agreement contracted between the Habsburgs and the Zápolyas in Speyer,Transylvania and Patrium were elevated to the status of principality under theofficial Latin name of Transylvaniae et partium regni Hungariae principatus (Kontler1999: 142, 148; Kopys 2001: 147;´ Középiskolai történelmi atlasz 1996: 41; Tornow2005: 223).

27. The Koran (or Qur’an in scientific transliteration from Arabic) is derived from theArabic verb qara’a, which means ‘to read’ and ‘to recite.’

970 Notes

28. The percentages do not add up to 100, because books in other languages wereproduced in Hungary too, for instance, in Church Slavonic and Greek.

29. Aramaic always remained a very specialized pursuit, so very few theologians knew it.30. After the final partition of Poland-Lithuania, St Petersburg wavered over whether to

liquidate or to preserve the Uniate Church. The roller coaster of intermittent scrap-ping and reinstating of Uniate metropolinates was over in 1839, when all of them butthe Kholm (Chełm) eparchy, located within the borders of the Congress Kingdomof Poland, were abolished. It, too, was finally suppressed in 1875 and the remainingUniates were forced to convert to Orthodox Christianity.

The situation differed in the Austrian Empire and Hungary. Vienna, eager tostem any Orthodox influence in these territories, fostered the development of theUniate Church in Galicia, Upper Hungary, and Transylvania. As the name ‘Uni-ate’ by then was perceived as derogatory, the 1774 imperial decree renamed thisChurch ‘Greek Catholic.’ As a result, today the designation of ‘Greek Catholic’remains in use in the territories that used to belong to Austria-Hungary, while‘Uniate’ refers to the re-founded Uniate Churches in the areas that were part ofthe Russian Empire, mainly in today’s Belarus. The same is true for Belarusian andUkrainian communities of emigrants, who carried the designations of ‘Uniate’ and‘Greek Catholic,’ respectively, to Western Europe and Northern America (Magocsi2002: 113).

31. It is more of an antiquarian interest that a famous Slavophone Mevlud (ode on thebirth of the Prophet Muhammad) was published in Arabic fonts in Yugoslavia as lateas 1974 (Riedlmayer 2004).

3 The broader linguistic and cultural context of Central Europe

1. The term tsar, widespread among Orthodox Slavs writing in Cyrillic, is derived fromrCaesar, the surname of the early Roman emperors, the first of whom was Gaius JuliusCaesar (100–44 BCE). The same source spawned another term for ‘emperor’ amongCatholic Slavs writing in the Latin script; for instance, cisar in Czech, cesarz in Pol-ish, or cisár in Slovak. The Magyars borrowed this term, császár, from Slavic. GermanrKaiser for ‘emperor’ also stems from Caesar. Similarly, the title ‘king’ in the Slaviclanguages (král in Czech, król in Polish, král’ in Slovak, or korol in Russian), in Magyar(király), or Romanian (crai) comes from Karl, the Germanic version of the name ofCharlemagne (ruled 768–814, crowned emperor 800). However, English ‘king’ orGerman König stems from Germanic kuni for ‘clan’ or ‘nobility’ (Bankowski 2000: I117–118, 824).

2. The Orthodox Patriarchate remained largely undisturbed with its seat in the Ottomancapital Konstantiniyya (Constantinople), but its power was limited to matters eccle-siastical, the internal administration and jurisdiction of the Rum (Roman) millet(Orthodox population organized as a non-territorial politico-religious entity in theOttoman Empire), and self-government of Christians in their villages and city dis-tricts. Similar arrangements were extended to Jews and Armenians. The monasticrepublic of Orthodox and exclusively male monasteries at Mt Athos, founded in the9th century, continued to flourish in the Ottoman Empire as the scholarly and ecclesi-astical center of Orthodox Christianity. But the Byzantine tradition of caesaropapism,that is, the ideological merger of Orthodox ecclesiastical authority with temporalpower was achieved exclusively in Muscovy. At that time, it was the sole independentOrthodox polity (Lewis 1963: x; Sugar 1977: 45–47).

Notes 971

3. Zeta, a semi-independent polity centered on Cetinje, was dominated inland by Serbia,and by Venice on the coast. In 1499, the Ottomans seized this polity, but they failedto establish their control in the mountainous section of the territory, over whichthe Orthodox bishop of Cetinje extended his joint ecclesiastical and temporal poweras Vladika (prince). He unilaterally separated his realm, known as Montenegro, fromthe Ottoman Empire in 1688. But this empire and other European powers recognizedthe independence of Montenegro only in 1878 (Honzák et al. 2001: 153–154, 743).

4. The translation is known as the Ostromir Gospel, because it was translated forOstromir, the Governor of the city of Novgorod, by deacon Grigorii (Fojtíková et al.1989: 465).

5. Besides these Ruthenian lands (south of the Pripet River, and extending fromVolhynia to the borders of the Crimean Khanate), which the Kingdom of Polandreceived from the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in 1569, this kingdom had alreadyconquered Halych (Halicz) Ruthenia in the 1340s. The region, centered on the cityof Lwów, is known as Galicia, which is the Latinate rendering of the name Halych.

6. In the 19th and 20th centuries, the etymology of Rus was a subject of heateddiscussion colored by nationalism. In the 9th and 10th centuries, Byzantines beganto use Ros, Arabs ar-Rus, and Latin authors Rusios for ‘Norsemen.’ As proposed by theWestphalian scholar, Gerhardt Friedrich Müller (1705–1783), in his 1749 speech inthe Russian Academy of Sciences, all the terms stem from the Finno-Ugric name forSwedes, preserved to this day as Finnish Ruotsi and Estonian Rootsi for ‘Sweden.’ (Theultimate etymology of the ethnonym may be Old Norse rods for rowing or the nameof the Swedish province of Roslagen, from where most Varangians [perhaps from OldNorse várar for ‘pledges’] came to Kievan Rus.) Slavic-speakers in what today is north-western Russia were neighbors of Finno-Ugric-speakers, who separated the formerfrom Germanic-speakers in central and western Scandinavia. Hence, when Germanic-speaking Varangians from what today is southern Sweden penetrated future KievanRus in the 860s, they became known to Slavic-speakers by the name applied to theseNorsemen by the Slavs’ Finno-Ugric neighbors. Slavicized Rus’ became the officialname of Kievan Rus. However, this obviously Germanic origin of the statehood ofKievan Rus became an anathema to Russian nationalists, who claimed this polityas the beginning of modern-day Russia. In the ethnolinguistic paradigm of CentralEuropean nationalism, the nation-state and its history have to be ethnolinguisticallyhomogenous. Otherwise, the legitimacy of a national polity could be compromised.Russian and Slavic researchers preferred to deny the Germanic origin of Kievan Rusin order to ‘prove’ that Slavs were not ‘culturally less developed or delayed’ vis-à-visGermanic peoples (Ilarion 1994: 208–209; Moszynski 2006: 81; Vasmer 1971: 522).´

7. The term ‘White Russian’ is the direct translation of Russian belorusskii, like ‘Little Rus-sian’ of malorusskii. Following the establishment of the Soviet Union, ‘Little Russia’and ‘Little Russian’ were dropped in favor of ‘Ukraine’ (Ukraina) and ‘Ukrainian’(ukrainskii). But the Russian designations of Belarus (White Russia) and belorusskii(White Russian) remained unchanged in the Soviet Union. This usage spawned theEnglish semi-transliterations of ‘B(y)elorussia’ and ‘B(y)elorussian.’ When Belarusgained independence in 1991, Mensk/Minsk requested the international communityto employ the forms ‘Belarus’ and ‘Belarusian,’ as distanced from the aforementionedRussified transliterations.

8. The Soviet authorities almost seamlessly took over the imperial policy ofanti-Polonism. St Petersburg was afraid that the lasting domination of Polish inadministration, education, and culture of the western provinces would entail gradual

972 Notes

Polonization of the White and Little Russian peasantry. The officially espoused policyof Russification was a reply to this perceived danger. Similarly, the Soviets feared thatthe shared past, and cultural and linguistic proximity between the Poles, and theBelarusians and the Ukrainians would make Soviet Byelorussia and Ukraine vulner-able to Polish bourgeois influence and to ‘creeping Polonization’ (Rodkiewicz 1998:221–222).

9. Actually, two Ukrainian states existed during the period 1918–1920, with the capitalsat Lviv and Kyiv. Poland crushed the former, and Soviet Russia the latter.

10. The legend of the Roman origin of the Lithuanians, and certain similarities betweenLithuanian and Latin, prompted some patriots of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania tolabel the official language of Ruthenian as ‘foreign,’ hence they looked favorablyupon its 1697 ban from official use. These patriots also despised encroaches made byPolish in the grand duchy, thus, the re-establishment of the dominance of Latin asthe de facto official language was perceived by them as becoming the ‘true Roman-Lithuanian’ character of their patria (Ališauskas et al. 2006: 12; Zinkevicius 1996: 73).

11. The German linguist, Georg Heinrich Ferdinand Nesselmann (1811–1881), from theUniversity of Königsberg was the first to propose naming the language family ofLithuanian and Latvian as ‘Baltic languages’ and the peoples speaking these twolanguages as ‘Balts’ in his 1845 book, Die Sprache der alten Preussen (The Language ofthe Old Prussians). Meanwhile, in the same role the term ‘Aestii’ (‘Aestian,’ ‘Aistian’)emerged, derived from an ethnic group mentioned by Tacitus (55–120). With time,it became an ambiguous designation, since Finno-Ugric Estonians tended to identifythe Aestii as early Estonians and claimed that the name ‘Estonians’ was derived fromthat of Aesti. At the end of the 19th century, the term ‘Balts’ won this terminolo-gical competition, though not until the 1920s in Lithuania itself (Zinkevicius et al.2005: 27).

12. Some see Karelian as a dialect of Finnish, while others a language in its own right.This is a reflection of inconsistency in Soviet imperial politics. In the course of thedisastrous Winter War (1939–1940), Moscow failed to conquer Finland. But in 1940,a swath of Finnish territory seized by the Red Army was joined with the prewarKarelian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic to form the Karelo-Finnish SovietSocialist Republic. The republic’s national language was changed from Cyrillic-basedKarelian to Latin script-based Finnish, accordingly. (The situation in the Finnish ter-ritories seized by the Soviets was similar to that in Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania,which after their annexation by the Soviet Union were allowed to keep the Latinscript for writing in their national languages.) Moscow resigned from its designs onFinland in 1956, when the Karelo-Finnish SSR was demoted to a Karelian ASSR, butFinnish remained the republic’s national language until 1985. Today in Russia’s Kare-lian Republic Karelian is the national language, but the republic’s authorities considerit a dialect of Finnish. On the other hand, Finnish linguists, in line with Helsinki’sacceptance of the postwar borders, deem Karelian to be a language separate fromFinnish, though until the interwar period, the popular view had been that Karelianwas a Finnish dialect (Grenoble 2003: 79; Mertelsmann 2006).

13. Although a clear regional Samogitian identity survived well into the 20th century,Samogitia’s Lithuanian-speakers developed a common ethnic/national identity withLithuania’s Lithuanian-speakers on the ethnolinguistic basis, in the 19th centuryat the latest. (The Lithuanians Christianized the Samogitians in 1418.) However,the linguistic separateness of Samogitian-speakers revived recently, as, for instance,emphasized by the Samogitian-language Wikipedia (Subacius 2007).

Notes 973

14. The historian, Simonas Daukantas (1793–1864), and the Bishop of Samogitia,Motiejus Valancius (1801–1875), were the first to write and publish scholarly worksˇin Samogitian. Daukantas’s history of Lithuania, published in 1850, was the first onein the Lithuanian language (Zinkevicius 1996: 264–265).ˇ

15. The overwhelmingly Polish-speaking Polish-Lithuanian natio resorted to the semi-official use of Samogitian-based Lithuanian in the times of need, when they hopedto mobilize Lithuanian-speaking peasants and commoners for the natio’s politicalgoals. Thus, Samogitian-based Lithuanian was employed in such a capacity in thefirst half of the 1790s, prior to the final partition of Poland-Lithuania, and duringthe anti-Russian uprisings of 1830–1831 and 1863–1864 (Ališauskas et al. 2006: 333,560; Zinkevicius 1996: 265–266).ˇ

16. The Polish-style orthography was replaced with its Czech counterpart in the period-ical in 1884, beginning in the 15th issue (Łossowski 2001: 22).

17. Juška was the first scholar to describe the Lithuanian dialects in 1861. He proposedthe now conventional division of these dialects into Samogitian (Central dialect),Prussian Lithuanian (western Aukštaitijan), the dialect of the Ariogala area, and East-ern Lithuanian (eastern Aukštaitijan). (The town of Ariogala is centrally placed in theLithuanian dialect area.) Because there was no single standard of Lithuanian acceptedby all at that time, Juška urged Lithuanians to write in their local dialects but in theunified spelling, which he developed (Zinkevicius 1996: 269).ˇ

18. The Poles alongside the Lithuanians and the Belarusians consider Mickiewicz ‘their’national poet. He wrote in Polish, but never visited Warsaw or Cracow, and con-sidered Lithuania (that is, the grand duchy) as his homeland. Mickiewicz’s familylived in what today is Belarus, and his mother was of Jewish origin, which allows toclaim him also as a Jewish poet. Significantly, the systemic change in Lithuania beganin earnest after the demonstration against the Ribbentrop-Molotov pact, which washeld at the monument of Adam Mickiewicz in Vilnius on 23 August 1987 (By prioragreement, on the same day, similar demonstrations took place in Riga and Tallinn)(Kiaupa et al. 2002: 200; Zinkevicius 1996: 326).ˇ

19. The long-lasting close relationship between Lithuanian- and Slavic-speakers in theGrand Duchy of Lithuania resulted in the uniquely Lithuanian name of Gudija forBelarus. Earlier, the ethnonym Gudai was employed by ethnic Lithuanians to referto any Slavs, Ruthenians (that is, Orthodox and Uniate Slavic-speaking inhabitantsof Poland-Lithuania), Russians, or sometimes even Poles. (The term even appearedin Polish, Gudowie, as a rare alternative name for the Belarusians.) It is believed tohave originated from the Goths’ self-ethnonym Gutans, *Ghudas, probably meaning‘inhabitants of the Baltic island of Gotland.’ In the 1st century BCE, Goths settledalong the southeastern littoral of the Baltic and came into contact with the Balts.The latter apparently transferred the name of Goths onto Slavs who made home inthese previously Gothic areas. Today, in official Lithuanian use Baltarusija (literally,‘White Russia’) is preferred to Gudija, though the latter term remains popular withLithuanian historians. On the other hand, puristically-minded Lithuanian linguistsreject the ethnonym Baltarusiai (‘Baltic Ruthenians,’ Rusiai for ‘Russians’ is derivedfrom Lithuanian Rusenai for ‘Ruthenians’) for Belarusians, as imposed during theSoviet occupation, and propose Baltgudžiai, instead, literally, ‘Baltic Gudai.’ Inter-estingly, until the partition of Poland-Lithuania, in Muscovy (and later Russia) theSlavophones of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania were commonly referred to as Litviny(‘Lithuanians’), since they lived in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (Ališauskas et al.2006: 637, 640–641; Zinkevicius et al. 2005: 70–71).ˇ

974 Notes

20. The Gothic script was employed for official purposes and publishing literature inGermany and Austria until officially banned in the Third Reich in 1941. To this day,few publications, intended for the stalwarts of this script, appear in Gothic charactersin Germany and Austria.

21. Due to their historical, economic, cultural, and religious links with Scandinaviaand northern Germany, the Lutheran inhabitants of Russia’s Baltic provinces (Cour-land, Estland, Finland, and Livonia) enjoyed almost full male literacy in German orSwedish and local languages (Estonian, Finnish, and Latvian), unlike elsewhere in theempire.

22. Incorrectly, the Romance language of Dalmatian is sometimes referred to as ‘Veglian’or ‘Vegliote’ (Veclisun). The name is derived from the Adriatic island of Veglia (today,Krk in Croatia), where the last known speaker of Dalmatian passed away in 1898.It appears more appropriate to construe Veglian as a northern dialect of Dalmatian,and Ragusan (lingua ragusea) as southern (Breton 2003: 75; Price 1998: 121–122).

23. The institution of the slavery of Roma in Transylvania, Moldavia, and Walachiabecame established between the mid-14th century and the turn of the 16th cen-tury. In Transylvania, slavery was abolished by the beginning of the 1790s. In 1855,a similar process commenced in Walachia and Moldavia, but was not completeduntil 1864. In both principalities, the number of slaves was estimated at 0.6 mil-lion at the time of their emancipation. Some authors claim that Roma left Walachiaand Moldavia fearing re-enslavement, but it seems that other factors were of moresignificance (Hancock 2002: 18, 23–25; Marushiakova and Popov 2006a).

24. The group name ‘Roman’ is derived from the city of Rome. The etymology of theword is uncertain; some propose it stems from the unattested Old Latin *urosma for‘hill,’ others side with the opinion that its source is the Etruscan name Rumon for theTiber River (Etymological Dictionary(( 2001).

25. The English name ‘Transylvania’ is derived from Latin Transsilvania for ‘the countrybeyond the forests,’ which Magyars supposedly encountered when crossing theCarpathians. The Magyar translation of this place-name, Erdély, was adopted intoWalachian as Ardealu, but in the course of the planned ‘re-Latinization’ of this lan-guage standardized as Romanian, the decision was taken to adopt the Latin name,spelled as Transilvania. In German, Transylvania is known as Siebenbürgen, liter-ally ‘the seven cities.’ It is a translation from official Latin name of Septemcastrensispagus, also rendered as Septem urbium regio. This name is connected to the arrival ofGermanic-speaking settlers, who established their seven main cities in Transylvania.Until recently, the Czech and Polish translations of this place-name (Sedmihradsko,Siedmiogród) were more popular than respective Transylvánie and Transylwania(Honzák et al. 2001: 585).

26. The specious theory of the Iranian (Aryan) origin of the Croats was built mainly inopposition to the Orthodox Serbs. After the end of communism, it gained quite apopularity similar to that enjoyed in postcommunist Hungary by the hypothesis ofthe Sumerian origin of the Magyars and their language. Some Croatian intellectualsseriously date back the ethnogenesis of the Croats to a Hittite kingdom, extant almost4000 years ago. In the scheme of equating the non-Slavic with ‘higher civilization,’Iranian origin is also accorded to the Slovenians, Bosnians, and Montenegrins. Withan obvious racist undertone, the Serbs are singled out as said to be of Semitic andNegroid origin. The question of the Croats’ Slavic language is explained by emphasiz-ing that language is not the definite identification factor of each nation (Wrocławski2002: 242–246).

Notes 975

27. Mount Athos, Hágion Oros in Greek, is a mountain at the end of Acte, the easternmostpeninsula protruding from the larger Chalcidice Peninsula. This mountain gave itsname to the monastic polity, whose territory overlaps with that of Acte. The firsthermits settled in this mountainous area in the mid-9th century. The first monas-tery surviving to this day was founded in 963 and the last one in 1540 (thoughit seems that the construction of another actually commenced in 2003). In 1045,the Byzantine Emperor, Constantine IX Monomachus (reigned 1042–1052) grantedthe monks with autonomy under imperial protection. The polity’s status includesthe prohibition of entry for women and female animals, and monasteries couldnot accept enuchs or beardless youth as monks. The Ottoman sultans preserved theautonomous status of Mt Athos, which was formalized in the monastic regulations of1783. The Treaty of Berlin (1878) confirmed the autonomy of Mt Athos, and Greeceannexed southern Macedonia, including Chalcidice, in 1913. In the same year,Mt Athos declared its independence as a monastic republic under Greece’s protec-tion. The republic adopted the crowned imperial double-headed eagle of Byzantium,rendered in black against golden background, as its flag. The 1923 Treaty of Lausanneon the relations between Greece and Turkey made the former state into the pro-tector of Mt Athos, which adopted its current Constitution the following year onthe basis of the 1783 regulations. In 1926, the Athos Constitution was incorpor-ated into the Greek Constitution, and a year later, Mt Athos became an autonomouspart of Greece, but preserved the Julian calendar, which Athens had replaced withthe Gregorian counterpart in 1924. All the recognized Orthodox patriarchates andthe autocephalous Orthodox Churches (provided, they are dominant in a givenstate) enjoy monasteries in Mt Athos, which are related to them. Hence, the Bulgarianand Serbian monasteries preserved Church Slavonic literacy and were responsible forthe rise of the early 19th-century Slavic national movements in the Balkans.

When Greece joined the European Communities in 1981, Brussels recognized thespecial autonomous status of Mt Athos. However, to this day, some Athos monkshave contested the 1972 decision of the Constantinople (Ecumenical) Patriarch toestablish diplomatic relations with the Vatican, and consider the European Uniona Catholic, thus heretic, organization (Honzák et al. 2001: 59; Jelavich and Barbara1977: 78; Müller 2005: 34–35, 65–66, 69–70, 73; Šourek 2006: 69).

28. The labels of (I)jekavian, Ekavian, and Ikavian indicate that the earlier Slavonic /e/ˇ(jat’) may be variably pronounced as /(i)je/, /e/, or /i/.

29. Ivo Andric (1892–1975), Yugoslavia’s sole winner of the Nobel Prize in Literature´(1961), is symbolic of the evolution of Yugoslavism from pluralism to exclusivistSerbianism. He was born in Bosnia to a Catholic Croatian family. As an Austro-Hungarian subject, Andric received education in Cracow, Graz, Vienna, and Zagreb.´Upon the founding of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes, like many Croatsat that time, he resigned from his native (I)jekavian Štokavian in favor of exclusivelySerbian Ekavian Štokavian, and switched from the Latin script to Cyrillic. In addi-tion, he purged his language of words and grammatical constructions, which wereassociated as Croatian. After the instituting of the royal dictatorship, most Croa-tian writers returned to Latin script-based (I)jekavian Štokavian, but Andric stuck to´his choice, and was rewarded with the post of Yugoslav Ambassador to Germany.Before and after World War II, Andric identified himself as Serb/Yugoslav, which´won him favor of Josip Broz Tito (1892–1980). This communist leader of postwarYugoslavia, being of mixed Croat-Slovenian parentage, hoped to turn the countryinto a genuine nation-state of the Yugoslavs. Andric became one of the symbols and´

976 Notes

instruments of Tito’s project (Andric 2006; Motyl 2001: 540; Pynsent and Kanikova1993: 15).

30. The case of Macedonian and Bulgarian is similar to that of Romanian and Moldovan.Macedonian and Bulgarian are written in Cyrillic but with the use of several differentletters (unlike in the homogenous version of the Latin alphabet employed for writingRomanian and Moldovan). Standard Macedonian is also based on the western dialectof Macedonia that is as far removed from Bulgarian as possible, and close to theSerbian dialectal area. A Bulgarian-Macedonian dictionary was published in 1968,but a Moldovan-Romanian one followed only in 2003 (Mladenov et al. 1968; Stati2003).

31. However, the situation of script use is more complicated than that in present-daySerbia. Cyrillic is the official Serbian alphabet in all the state, except Vojvodina whereone can officially employ the Latin alphabet for writing Serbian. On the other hand,advertisers and Western-oriented scholars, publishers, and periodicals prefer to useLatin characters as well; Belgrade’s influence on the choice of script does not extendbeyond the official sphere. Hence, citizens, who loath to allow this encroachment ofthe ‘foreign script’ on the ‘Serbian alphabet,’ founded numerous organizations andcommittees for ‘defence of Cyrillic’ (Gil 2005: 144).

32. The polemic on the ‘ethnic belonging of Bosancica (Bosanica, Bosnian), whichcommenced in the mid-19th century, has become the subject of heated con-troversy beginning in the mid-1990s. The Serbs claim Bosancica as a variant ofSerbian Cyrillic because in the past, not only Orthodox but also Catholics (inBosnia and Ragusa) referred to it as ‘Serbian letters.’ In addition, today, neitherBosniaks nor Croats, but only Serbs use Cyrillic in Bosnia. Although, one cancome across the denotation ‘Croatian Cyrillic’ for Bosancica, most Croatian scholarsdub it ‘Western Cyrillic,’ thus somewhat distancing this script from the tradi-tion of Croatian literacy. Bosniak scholars claim that first documents in Bosancicawere produced in the 10th century, but the actual use of this distinctive scriptbegan in the second half of the 13th century in Ragusa and Dalmatia. The tra-dition of Bosancica writing flowered from the 14th to 17th century, the scriptused by Catholics, Muslims, and Orthodox. Few isolated families and individualscontinued to write in Bosancica until the 20th century (Bosancica 2006; Bosnian2006).

33. The ethnonym Montenegrin stems from Venetian Italian Monte Nero (‘BlackMountain’), which is the translation of the Slavic name of the country, Crnagora(Simpson and Weiner 1991: 1111).

34. The name of the ancient region of Macedonia and the ancient self-ethnonym‘Macedonians’ come from Greek Makedones, meaning ‘highlanders’ or ‘the tall ones,’related to makednos for ‘long’ or ‘tall,’ and makros for ‘long’ or ‘large’ (Etymological((Dictionary 2001).

35. For instance, Herodotus (485–425 BCE) recorded that seven ethne (ethnic groups)inhabited the Peloponnesus, and enumerated them, the Arcadians, Kynourians,Achaens, Dorians, Aetolians, Dryopes, and Lemnians (Drews 1988: 219).

36. Today, the remnant of Graecia Magna is the 15,000 Greek-speakers living in Italy’sApulia (Stegner 2006: 61).

37. The religious ban on translating the Koran was so strong in the Muslim world,the earliest published translations of the Holy Book were into European languages,English (1515 selection; 1648 whole text), Latin (1543), Italian (1547), German(1616), Dutch (1641), and French (1647) (Qarai 2004).

Notes 977

38. In recognition of his achievements for the Turkish nation-state, the national Par-liament granted Mustafa Kemal the surname ‘Atatürk’ (‘Father of Turks’) in 1934,and simultaneously prohibited the use of this unique surname by any other person(Motyl 2001: 30).

39. The name of the Crimea was mediated via Greek from the Turkic name of town ofQırım (Stary Krym), which used to be the capital of the Golden horde’s province ofCrimea. Literally, qırım is Turkic for ‘my hill.’

40. Its founders, Turkic Bulgars, initially passed the ethnonym ‘Bulgarian,’ onto the medi-eval Bulgarian Empire. The etymology of their name is uncertain, but may mean the‘people from the Bolg,’ or the River Volga. In the period from the 4th to the 6thcentury, the Turkic Bulgars were established in the territory between this river andthe Dniester (Gagova et al. 1996: 6; Etymological Dictionary 2001).

41. The ethnonym ‘Bavarian,’ or Baj(u)varii in Latin, probably comes from the Celticgroup of Boii, whose ethnonym also gave rise to the name of Bohemia (Honzák et al.2001: 81).

42. In the second half of the 9th century, in the East Frankish Kingdom, the Slavophonelands between the rivers Elbe and Saale were organized into the Sorbian Mark, whichwas absorbed into Saxony in the 910s.

43. The ethnonym ‘Jew’ is derived from Latin Judaeus and Greek Ioudaios, which bothultimately stem from Hebrew Yehudhah for ‘Judah,’ which was a Jewish kingdom. In922 BCE, the Israelite Kingdom was divided into the northern Kingdom of Israel andthe southern Kingdom of Judah. The same Greco-Latin etymology spawned similarethnonyms in Central European languages, Žid in Czech, Slovak, and Serbo-Croatian,Juudi in Estonian, Jude in German, Žyd in Lithuanian, Zsidó in Magyar, or Zyd inPolish. Belarusian, Russian, and Ukrainian Evrei and Bulgarian Evrein for ‘Jew’ comesfrom Hebrew. Zhid in all the four languages functions as a pejorative term for a Jew(Simpson and Weiner 1991: 894).

44. The term ‘Haskalah’ was coined from the Hebrew word sekhel, meaning ‘reason,’‘intellect,’ or ‘common sense.’ ‘Maskilem,’ literally the ‘enlightened ones,’ also stemsfrom this word. The Haskalah petered out in the 1880s, gradually replaced bysocialism and zionism (Jewish nationalism) among European Jewery.

45. As in the case of other renowned Armenian personalities, in Western literature, thereare numerous versions of the name of Mekhitar of Sebastia, which is a result of differ-ent methods of transliteration from the Armenian to Latin script, from Cyrillic to theLatin alphabet, and from one Western language to another; for instance, MekhitarSebastatsii, Mkhitar Sebastaci, Mxitar Sebastatsi, or Mekhitar de Sebástia.

46. This policy was also extended to the Baltic languages after the Soviet annexation ofLithuania, Latvia, and Estonia in 1941. The literacies in these three languages wereso vibrant that Moscow could not hope to impose Cyrillic on them.

47. As the Orthodox Church in the case of Greekness, it is one’s membership in theArmenian Apostolic Church that makes one into a ‘true Armenian,’ even if one isagnostic or an outright atheist. The Greeks failed to incorporate to their nation-state Constantinople, the seat of the Ecumenical Patriarch, who heads the Orthodoxworld. The Armenians were more fortunate in this respect, and the seat of theSupreme Patriarch and Catholicos of All Armenians is located in Etchmiadzin, nearthe Armenian capital of Yerevan. The memory of the Armenian Kingdom of Ciliciasurvives in the form of the Catholicate of Cilicia with the seat in Antelias (Lebanon)with its jurisdiction over Cyprus, Lebanon, Syria, the Persian Gulf states, Iran, andthe Americas; and the tradition of the Armenian millet in the Ottoman Empire

978 Notes

is preserved in the shape of the Armenian Patriarchates of Constantinople andJerusalem.

48. There are four basic dialect groups of Romani, Balkan (Greece, Turkey, Albania, thepost-Yugoslav states, and Bulgaria), Vlax (Romania), Central (Hungary, Slovakia, andthe Czech Republic), and Northern (the rest of Europe). Dialects from all these groupsare spoken side by side in Central Europe and the Balkans, and pockets of the speak-ers of Balkan, Vlax, and Central dialects are spread all around Europe. In WesternEurope and Scandinavia, where many Roma groups lost command of Romani, theyuse numerous Romani words and expressions in local languages, the effect being sim-ilar to Ladino, that is, Jewish Spanish infused with specifically Jewish Hebrew andAramaic vocabulary. In a similar manner, para-Romani languages emerged, in whichentirely Romani lexicon is grafted on the syntax of other languages. In a way, Englishis a ‘para-Germanic language,’ because despite its Germanic syntax, most of its vocab-ulary is of Romance origin (Bakker and Kyuchkov 2000: 70–71, 76–79; Courthiade1998).

49. The authorities of the Third Reich had ideological problems with earmarking theRoma for the ‘final solution,’ because in the racist vocabulary of national social-isms they were ‘Aryans.’ First, it was decided that no more than 10 percent of theRoma are ‘pure Aryans,’ and they were to be granted their own nation-state in Aus-tria’s Burgenland. Later, these technical niceties were brushed away clearing theway for the extermination of all Roma, irrespective of their perceived ‘racial purity’(Marushiakova and Popov 2005: 438–439).

50. The term ‘Porajmos’ has been contested as unintelligible to the average Rom,and even of obscene meanings in some varieties of Romani. Perhaps, with time,the new coinage, Samudardipen (‘widespread killings,’ ‘massacres’), will replace it(Marushiakova and Popov 2006).

51. Although traditionally Roma intellectuals have employed either the Latin script orCyrillic for writing in Romani, the Romani Wikipedia is available in two parallelscriptural versions, in the Latin alphabet and Devanagari (literally, Sanskrit for ‘divinecity’), or India’s national script. Only the insignificant few Roma intellectuals areactually literate in Devanagari, but it is a symbolical bow toward India, popularlyseen by Romani national activists as the ancestral homeland of the Roma since the1960s. From the mid-1970s, the Roma International Union began to receive politicaland symbolical support from the Indian government, which fortified the ideologicallink between the Roma national movement and India (Marushiakova and Popov2005: 439–440).

52. Johann Martin Schleyer (1831–1912), a German Catholic priest, thought that Godtold him in a dream to construct an international language. In 1879–1880, he presen-ted to the world his project, which mostly drew from English with some additionsfrom German, French, Italian, and Spanish. Unlike, Zamenhof in Esperanto, hechanged words beyond easy recognizability, which lessened the immediate appealof Volapük (Price 1998: 19).

53. During and after World War II, London and Washington strongly supportedthe development and use of Basic English, in whose name the word ‘Basic’ isan acronym for British, American, Scientific, International, and Commercial. In1928, Charles Kay Ogden (1889–1957) and Ivor Armstrong Richards (1893–1979)proposed this constructed language of 850 English words with a simplified syn-tax. Its defining grammar and dictionary came off the press in 1934 and 1940,respectively. Much educational and propaganda material has been published and

Notes 979

broadcast in Basic English; many books and booklets were published in this lan-guage, including even the translation of the Bible. The United States governmentalradio station, Voice of America, employs Basic English in its broadcasts and SimpleEnglish Wikipedia (begun in 2001) is entirely in this language. Basic English wasintended as an international lingua franca in its own right, an introduction toregular English, and a sort of plain English, especially for the functionally illit-erate. Interestingly, Gerge Orwell (1903–1950) created Newspeak, as employed inhis famous novel, Nineteen Eighty-Four (1949), by merging Esperanto grammarwith the limited lexicon of Basic English (McArthur 1992: 107–109; Zelazny 1990:130–131).

54. Southern Azeri, spoken in Iran, has not been touched by Latinization orCyrillicization, and continues to be written and printed in Arabic characters.

55. According to the 1999 census, Kazakhs constituted 53.4 percent of Kazakhstan’s 15million-strong population, and Russians 30 percent. In 2005, it was estimated thatthe respective figures were 58–60 percent and 25–27 percent.

4 The Polish case: from Natio to Nation

1. Before the revolution, France was a multilingual state where less than one quarterof the inhabitants spoke the language known as ‘French’ (that is, the dialect ofParis). Initially, the universalism of the French Revolution provided for the trans-lation of the most significant acts of the new government into local languages.But soon the revolutionaries required the non-standard French-speaking citizens to‘resign from persisting in their linguistic error’ (that is, their native languages andnon-standard dialects), and saw eagerness to follow this line as the main instrumentof distinguishing between ‘friends and enemies of the revolution,’ because the coun-terrevolutionary movements brewed in provinces, and thus, frequently did not sharelanguage with the revolutionary capital. While reinventing monarchical France as acivic nation-state, the revolution also equated the standardized French language ofParis with progress and civilization, and other languages with counterrevolution andbackwardness. This translated into the national policy of radical linguistic homo-genization that continues in France to this day. Most of France’s population wastaught to speak standard French by World War I (Higonnet 1980; Martel 1992: 119;Schlieben-Lange 1996; Weber 1976: 67–94; Zelazny 2000: 12–15).

2. It seems that in Europe the first system of popular education was created in Prussiaby the royal decrees of 1736 and 1763. The actual enforcement of elementary schoolattendance for all children began in earnest only in the 1820s. Poland-Lithuaniadid not manage to achieve this goal before its final partition in 1795 (Volksschule1890: 270).

3. In the 16th century, the Polish-Lithuanian nobility spoke Polish, Ruthenian, andGerman as their native tongues endowed with writing systems. But in the followingcentury most of the nobility became Polonized or successfully acquired Polish as asecond language indispensable for full participation in political and economic life ofthe commonwealth (Kizwalter 1999: 68).

4. The flowering of French-language writing in the Polish-Lithuanian noble traditioncame in the scholar and aristocrat, Jan Potocki’s (1761–1815) popular picaresquenovel, The Memoir Found in Saragossa (1803–1815).

5. Interestingly, when the Russian Academy of Sciences was established in St Peters-burg in 1724, there was no agreement among its members on whether the

980 Notes

proceedings should be conducted in Russian (that is, vernacularized ChurchSlavonic) or in German, so they decided on Latin as a compromise (Picchio1999: 102).

6. Perhaps, the shape of standard Polish would be significantly different, had the PiaristAlojzy Osinski (1770–1842) managed to have his 24-volume dictionary, Bogactwomowy polskiej (The Riches of the Polish Language) published. As Linde, he was amember of the TPN. Between 1806 and 1824, Osinski taught in a university-likePolish-language secondary school in the Volhynian town of Krzemieniec, and later,he headed the Catholic divinity academy in Vilnius (1833–1839). This authoritativedictionary, with headwords illustrated by appropriate quotations drawn from popularauthors, would have outshone Linde’s work. However, Osinski’s dictionary remainedin manuscript, and ten of its volumes went missing.

7. The original term ‘language question’ dates back to the 14th century. Around 1305,the Florentine poet Dante Alghieri (1265–1321) completed his De vulgari eloquentia(On the Eloquence of the Vernacular). Although the book was published in Paris in1577, rewritten copies had already circulated widely. In this Latin-language treatise,Dante introduced the seminal distinction between ‘natural’ and ‘artificial’ languages.Latin could be identified as an example of the latter and the ‘Florentine tongue’(future Italian) as an example of the former. Between the 14th and the 16th the cen-turies, the discussion fomented by this work and Dante’s vernacular poetry led tothe accepted emergence of vernacular languages throughout Western Europe. Soonthey eclipsed Latin in importance, and set the European paradigm of language codi-fication. In the wake of the Reformation and Counter-Reformation, this paradigmdeveloped and spread to all Catholic and Protestant areas of the Old Continent (Dante1996: xiii–xviii; Picchio 1999: 89).

8. In 1840, the adjective ‘Lithuanian’ was dropped from the official names of the guber-nias of Vilnius and Grodno (Hrodna), and later, one began to distinguish between theNorthwestern and Southwestern gubernias, also dubbed the Northwestern Land andSouthwestern Land, respectively. The former denotation corresponds to present-dayLithuania and Belarus, while the latter to the northern section of present-day Ukraine,extending from the Dniester to the Dnieper (Aleksandravicius and Kulakauskas 2003:84; Ališauskas et al. 2006: 634).

9. This conservative ideology was the opposite of that of the French Revolution,encapsulated in the similarly triadic slogan liberté, égalité, fraternité. With this newlyformulated official ideology, the tsar sought to ensure stability, centralization,gradual modernization, and homogenization of the Russian Empire without com-promising the absolutist nature of the monarchy, legitimized through Orthodoxy(represented by the Russian Orthodox Church which, in turn, was subjugated to thetsar’s political will). By the way, Russian narodnost though popularly translated as‘nationality’ does not share its meaning with the English term, which denotes either‘stateless ethnic group’ or ‘the state of belonging to a nation.’ Narodnost refers to ‘apeople’ (narod) as a positive value grounded in soil (that is, a ‘fatherland’) and a reli-ddgion (Orthodox Christianity). This people was perceived as naturally loyal to theirbatiushka (father), or the tsar; and by default they was expected to speak Russian,too. In a nutshell, this ideology was to produce the istnyi russkii chelovek (genuineRussian person). After 1864, this quality became the basic prerequisite to be fulfilledbefore one could be even considered for employment in Russia’s civil service. Fromthis basis, ethnolinguistic Russian nationalism emerged in the two last decades of the19th century (Davies 1982: II 90; Riasanovsky 1959).

Notes 981

10. Prussia forged the ethnolinguistic in its character Kleindeutsch nation-state, whicheffectively excluded Austria from the German national project. This meant thefailure of the Habsburgs’ Großdeutsch (Great German) solution, which sought a recre-ation of the Holy Roman Empire as a federal polity that would have been ruledfrom Vienna, not Berlin. A Großdeutsch polity could be a civic nation-state only,because apart from Germans, it would embrace numerous non-German-speakinggroups. Both Berlin and Vienna loathed the third solution, favored by liberal nation-alists in 1848, which urged the gathering of Central Europe’s German-speakingareas in a German nation-state, irrespective of established borders (Müller 1996:159–169).

11. The first holder of the Chair of Ruthenian Language and Literature (founded in 1848)at the University of Lemberg, Iakiv Holovats’kyi (1814–1888), set for himself the taskof proving that Ruthenian/Little Russian was neither a dialect of Polish nor Russian(Magocsi 1980: 9).

12. In 1897, the rate of literacy was 21.1 percent in the Russian Empire, though 22.9percent in European Russia, and 30.5 percent in the Vistula Land. In cities, the per-centage was higher, 48.9 percent in European Russia and 44.7 percent in the VistulaLand, and the corresponding indicators for male urbanites were 58.5 and 50.5 per-cent, respectively. The later modernizing efforts did not significantly alter these levelsof literacy, and it is estimated that 20 to 25 percent of the empire’s population wasliterate in 1917 (Johnson 1950: 197, 283).

13. Two chairs in Ruthenian law established at the University of Lemberg in 1862 weremultilingual, and another Chair of Ruthenian Language and Literature was foun-ded in 1875 at the German-language University of Czernowitz (Chernivtsi) in theCrownland of Bukovina (Magocsi 1980: 10).

14. The French-language edition of this encyclopedia was prepared just in time for thePeace Conference in Paris. The English-language edition followed thanks to the sup-port of the Polish organizations in the United States. The foreign language editionscomprised more volumes than the Polish-language original (Polish Encyclopaedia((1922: VI).

15. Bucharest obtained a common border with Poland, when in November 1918, theAustrian Crownland of Bukovina was incorporated into Romania. The WesternUkrainian National Republic also claimed the region, which made Romania into apotential enemy of Ukraine, and hence facilitated Warsaw’s suppression of the repub-lic, while Bucharest, besieged with other border problems, observed this developmentgladly.

16. It appears that in the mid-19th century, even the majority of Polish noblemen couldhardly write in standard Polish, let alone speak in it (Stomma 2006: 138–139).

5 The Hungarian case

1. I use German-language versions of Hungarian place-names, as until the mid-19thcentury the population of Hungarian towns was overwhelmingly German-speaking.As a result, these towns used German as the language of administration, which for-tified the usage of Germanophone place-names in the Kingdom of Hungary. Thereversal of this tradition commenced with the rise of ethnic Magyar nationalismin the first half of the 19th century. Urban populations became gradually Magyar-ized. As of the 1867 Ausgleich (compromise), Magyarophone versions of place-namesreplaced the German ones in official usage. Accordingly, when referring to events

982 Notes

after 1867, I employ Magyar place-names. In every case, when a place-name is men-tioned for the first time, I append its current official linguistic form (unless it is thesame).

2. From 1563 to 1830, 11 Hungarian kings were crowned in Preßburg. However, someargue that de jure Preßburg remained the coronation town for Hungarian monarchsuntil 1867 when the coronation of the Hungarian king (Francis Joseph) took placein Buda.

3. Da sind sie jetzt unter Slaven, Deutschen, Wlachen und anderen Völkern der geringere Teilder Landeseinwohner, und nach Jahrhunderten wird man vielleicht ihre Sprache kaum finden(Herder 1800: 476; Herder 1966: 429).

4. In the forming autonomous Principality of Serbia, most experienced and educatedadministrators such as Dositej came from the Austrian Empire. The locals called themnemckari, that is, ‘lovers of all things German’ (Markovich 2004: 90).

5. The first Magyarophone literary and historical journal Tudományos Gyujtemények(Scientific Collections) published since 1817 (Fodor 1983: 60).

6. Literally, matica means ‘queen bee’ in Serbo-Croatian, and it is derived from the Slavicword matka, or ‘mother.’

7. The conflict between nobles from Croatia and Hungary about which language theyshould use to do official business in the Hungarian Diet was not ethnic yet. Both groupof nobles were multilingual, and a change in the official language did not hindermuch their ability to make their voices heard. Otherwise, Croatian nobles would havestood for the replacement of Latin with Magyar and Croatian. But at that time, theysimply sought to maintain the traditional privileges of administrative autonomy,which Croatia had enjoyed within in the Kingdom of Hungary for centuries. In thesecond half of the 19th century, when mass national movements gradually wrestedpolitics away from the hands of the privileged few, the 1844 supersession of Latinby Magyar in the Diet became an important argument in ethnolinguistic conflictsplayed out in the kingdom.

8. The English word ‘race’ until the 1930s also meant an ‘ethnic group’ or GermanVolk, that is, ‘ethnic nation.’ Because the word also denoted ‘species,’ this bio-logical meaning reinforced the biologizing (absolutizing) view of ethnicity andnationalism.

9. Tatrin , literally, an inhabitant of the Tatra Mountains in the north of Upper Hungary.10. Vojvodina, today an autonomous republic in Serbia, belonged to Hungary, but passed

onto the Ottoman hands in the 16th century. Following the Habsburg reconquest,at the end of the 17th century, Vojvodina originated as a region within the adminis-trative framework of Vienna’s Military Frontier poised as a bulwark of the Habsburglands against the Ottoman Empire. Neusatz (Újvidék in Magyar, and Novi Sad inSerbian) has remained Vojvodina’s capital to this day. The region comprised thehistorical Hungarian komitat of Syrmia (Szerém in Magyar, and Srem in Serbian)located between the Danube and the Sava, the komitat of Backa (Bács in Magyar)located between the Danube and the Tisza, and the Banate (Banovina in Slavic, andBánság in Magyar) of Temeschwar-Josephstadt (Temesvár in Magyar, and Timisoarain Romanian) bounded by the Mures, the Tisza, the Danube, and the Transylvanianborder. Later, this banate became known as the region of ‘Banat.’ This name is derivedfrom the Persian title of Ban (master, lord, keeper). It was brought to Central Europeby the Avars in the 6th century, and became popular among the Balkan Slavs. The titlewas customarily used by virtually autonomous rulers of various regions in Croatia,and then, by leaders of some districts in the Military Frontier.

Notes 983

Following the suppression of the Hungarian War of Independence in 1849,Vienna created the Crownland (District) of the Serbian Voivodeship and the Banateof Temeschwar from the aforesaid territories with the capital in Temeschwar.This crownland survived until 1867, when it was split into five komitats. Thebanate was divided into three komitats. From the administrative term voivodeship(Woiwodschaft in German, vajdaság in Magyar, and vojvodina in Serbian) the name ofthe region of Vojvodina sprang up. ‘Voivodeship’ stems from the Slavic ‘voivode’ fora ‘commandant of a military division or a region.’

Serbia’s present-day Vojvodina, detached from Hungary after 1918, consists ofBacka, Syrmia, and the westernmost sliver of Banat. The ethnolinguistic heterogen-ˇeity of Vojvodina was triggered by the Ottoman expansion. Most of the Croatianand Magyar population fled northward. In the wake of the Habsburg reconquest,between 1691 and 1718, Orthodox Slavic refugees (Serbs) from Ottoman-held Ser-bia and Macedonia settled in the region. Croatian and Magyar adventurers from thenearby districts followed. Later, the Habsburg administration populated Vojvodinawith German, Czech, Slovak, and Ruthenian (Rusyn) settlers (Honzák et al. 2001:711; Középiskolai történelmi atlasz 1996: 30–31, 46, 62–63; Simpson and Weiner 1991:103; Sugar 1977: 145).

11. Honvédség, literally ‘territorial army,’ translation of the German term ‘Landwehr’ forreserve forces drawn from a region or state.

12. The uprising created great excitement among young, liberal minded Magyars, as italso did across Prussia and elsewhere in the German Confederation.

13. From the Hungarian government’s earlier experience, Jelaci´ˇ c understood that he´needed the support of Croatian peasantry in this new age of mass politics. Other-wise his troops would not have stood any chance against the Hungarian armies.Thus, despite Vienna’s vocal opposition, he proclaimed the abolition of serfdom inCroatia on 18 May 1848.

6 The Czech case: from the Bohemian Slavophone Populus toCzech Nationalism and the Czechoslovak Nation

1. [E]iusdem nobilis slavici idiomatis participatio, eiusdem generosae linguae sublimitas.2. Palacký expressed his opinion in German: Wahrlich, existierte der österreichische Kaiser-

staat nicht schon längst, man müßte im Interesse Europas, im Interesse der Humanität selbstsich beeilen, ihn zu schaffen.

3. I use the adjective ‘Bohemian’ exclusively to refer to the region of Bohemia, while theadjective ‘Czech’ I reserve for talking about Bohemia, Moravia, and sometimes Silesiaas a single political entity. I introduced this somewhat anachronistic usage to avoidconfusion, because in Czech, German, Magyar, and Polish the region and the latterentity are referred to with the same adjective, ceskýˇ , böhmisch, cseh, and czeski, respect-ively. Sometimes it is difficult to discern if the region or the larger entity is meant.This terminological confusion stems from the usage proposed by 19th-century Czechnationalists who, in the interest of building a future Czech nation-state consistingat least of Bohemia and Moravia, propagated the myth that Bohemia and Moraviahad been a unified single political entity from times immemorial. The myth justifiedtheir aspirations, and highlighted the continuing separateness of the crownlands ofBohemia and Moravia in Austria-Hungary as ‘unnatural’ and ‘against historical law.’

984 Notes

4. This development paralleled the earlier replacement of the Czech plural term forHungary, Uhry, with the singular Uhersko, as in Rakousko-Uhersko, that is, Austria-Hungary. On the other hand, the Czech terms for Lower and Upper Austria, HorníRakousy and Dolní Rakousy, retain their plural form to this day, though Austria inCzech is singular, Rakousko.

5. The German original reads: ‘so werdet auch ihr so tief versunkene, einst fleißige undglückliche Völker, endlich einmal von eurem langen Schlaf ermuntert, von euren Sklaven-ketten befreit, eure schönen Gegenden vom Adriatischen Meer bis zum Karpatischen Gebirge,von Don bis zur Mulda als Eigentum nutzen’ (Herder 1966: 435).

6. The ethnonym ‘Horak’ is derived from Czech and Slovak hora for ‘mountain.’ TheHoraks lived in the range of low mountains, which separates Moravia from Bohemia.‘Hanak’ and ‘Slováckan’ stem from the respective regions of Hana and Slovácko. Slov-ensko is both Czech and Slovak for ‘Slovakia,’ but it shares with Slovácko the sameroot, which means ‘Slavic.’ Hana (or Hanna in German) originated from the RiverHana (Hanna in German), which flows across the region. The ethnonym Valach isdirectly connected to the Walachian population engaged in transhumant economy,who, between the 13th and the 16th centuries, spread northward along the entire archof the Carpathians, including its northwestern terminus in Moravia. In the process,the originally Romance-speaking population became Slavicized west of Czernowitz(Chernivtsi) (Hannan 1996: 56, 69–71; Rejzek 2001: 194, 697).

7. Another Czech-language university was established at the Moravian capital of Brnoin 1919 after the establishment of Czechoslovakia. This university was named afterMasaryk, the main ideologue of Czechoslovak nationalism and the first president ofCzechoslovakia. In the same year, the very first Slovak-language university was foun-ded at Bratislava, and was named after Bohemia’s famous Protestant thinker and writerJohn Amos Comenius. Proponents of Czechoslovakism presented him as a ‘father’ ofCzechoslovak commonality.

7 The Slovak case: from Upper Hungary’s Slavophone Populusto Slovak Nationalism and the Czechoslovak Nation

1. The Soviet Union recognized independent Slovakia until the German attack in1941, and France and Great Britain also briefly offered a modicum of recognitionto this new nation-state until they threw their weight behind Beneš’s project of there-establishing Czechoslovakia after World War II.

2. The method of genetic classification of languages is quite arbitrary, and oftentimesits verdicts are dictated by political (national) needs rather than linguistic research.Variously, choosing certain features of Slovak, one could classify this language asbelonging either to the East, West, or South Slavic languages. In addition, talkingabout genetic relations between closely related languages before they were even writ-ten or codified is an anachronism in service of politics. When there were no writtenor standard languages, Slavic dialects changed gradually from village to village, andthere is no scientific basis for deciding where the linguistic border between Czech,Slovak, and Polish was. Nationally minded linguists usually overcome this obstacleby equating the political borders of polities identified as the Czech state, Poland,or Slovakia with the presumed geographical extent of Czech, Polish, and Slovak(Kamusella 2005).

Notes 985

3. The central geographic location of Slovak among the Slavic languages makes it theeasiest to be understood at a basic level by Slavic-speakers. In a way, it is a reflectionof the single Slavic dialect continuum before the Magyar incursion split it into theNorthern and Southern Slavic continua that obtain to this day. However, it is politicsand economic might that predisposes a language to the role of lingua franca, notlinguistic features, however favorable for swift communication they could be.

4. This scholar from Upper Hungary nowadays popularly dubbed as a ‘Slovak’ in Slovakhistory textbooks was a Slavophone Lutheran pastor who wrote in Latin and Ger-man. Regarding his identity, he famously remarked that he was ‘lingua Slavus, nationeHungarus, eruditione Germanus,’ or a Slav by language, a Hungarian by natio, and aGerman by education (Brock 2005: 39).

5. Papánek drew on Johann Christoph Jordan’s work De originibus slavicis (On the Originof the Slavs, 1745) (Sundhaußen 1973: 103).

6. In this term, ‘cultural’ means ‘written.’ Hence, Cultural Western Slovak denotes awritten language that arose on the basis of dialects associated with what today iswestern Slovakia.

7. This Catholic priest and proponent of Bernoláctina should not be confused with theˇProtestant pastor Juraj Palkovic (1769–1850) who supported Bibliˇˇ ctina.ˇ

8. He preferred the Biblictina/Czech spelling of his name, Pavel Josef Šafaˇˇ rík, but, inˇline with the contemporary practice, signed his writings and documents in otherlanguages with appropriate linguistic variants of his name, that is, Paul Joseph Schaf-farik in German, Paulus Josephus Schaffarik in Latin, or Pál József Saf(f)arik in Magyar.He knew nothing of the modern-day standard Slovak version of his name, Pavel JozefŠafárik, because the Slovak language was standardized in earnest long after Šafárik’sdeath.

9. Ivan Prach came to St Petersburg from Austrian Silesia, where he signed his name inGerman as Johann Gottfried Pratsch and in Bohemian as Jan Bohumir Prac.

10. Beginning in 1845, the Slavophone Calvinists in the region between the UpperHungarian towns of Käsmark (Kežmarok, Kesmárk) and Eperjs (Prešov) developedtheir own Slavophone ‘sariskij jazik’ (language of the Komitat of Sáros) written inMagyar orthography in opposition to Catholic Bernoláctína and Lutheran Bibliˇˇ ctina.ˇBooks appeared in this self-proclaimed ‘csiszta szlovenszka recs’ (pure Slavic/Slovaklanguage) until 1923, and a newspaper started publication in 1886 in Pittsburgh PA(Dulichenko 1981: 88–90).

11. Standard Slovak is one of few European languages, whose ‘birth’ can be exactlypinpointed in time. Štúr came to the decision to standardize Slovak on the basisof the Central Slovak dialect at 3:30pm on 14 February 1843 (Brock 2005: 88).

12. Apart from the Slovaks, Štúr recognized ten more tribes of the Slavic nation that spoketheir specific dialects of the Slavic language, namely, the Great Russians (Russians),Little Russians (Ukrainians), Bulgarians, Serbs, Croats, Slovenes, Poles, Czechs, UpperSorbs, and Lower Sorbs (Štúr 1943: 19).

13. Historians of the Slovak language maintain that the first text in modern Slovak, afable, was published in 1832. It was authored by Samo Chalupka (1812–1883), astudent in the Preßburg Protestant secondary school who became a pastor in 1836.He wrote this fable in the Tatra dialect, which a decade later Štúr termed ‘CentralSlovak dialect’ and made into the basis of modern Slovak. Also in the 1830s, anotherLutheran pastor, Andrej Corba, wrote in the dialect of Eperjes, or what today is knownas the ‘Eastern Slovak dialect.’ But none of his writings was published. Thus, unlikeBernoláctina associated with the Western Slovak dialect, the Eastern Slovak dialectˇ

986 Notes

never entered the tradition of Slovak literacy. In the written form, it survived asthe Sáros/Šariš language. But because this language was employed by pro-MagyarSlavophone Calvinists, only recently did some Slovak linguists claim it as part of thehistory of Slovak literacy. To this day, eastern Slovakia and its inhabitants appear‘strange’ to the average Slovak, who marks this difference by calling eastern Slovaksby the specific ethnonym ‘Slovjak’ (The ethnonym ‘Slovak’ in the Slovak language is‘Slovak’) (Brock 2005: 66, 135–136).

14. The Matica slovenská was not only the early achievement of and rallying point forSlovak nationalism; it was also an inspiration for the Ruthenian national move-ment. In the emulation of this example, in 1866, the Obshchestvo svatego VasiliiaVilikago (St Basil the Great Society) was founded in Ungwar (Ungvár in Magyar,today Uzhhorod in Ukraine). It published the first Ruthenian newspaper, Svet (Light,1867–1871), and the first Ruthenian educational periodical Nauka (Science, 1897–1914). In 1902, Budapest dissolved the society, and replaced it with the publishinghouse Unió (Union). Unió published textbooks and religious titles for Rutheniansin Ruthenian and Magyar with an eye to their eventual Magyarization (Pop 2005b:226, 250, 253).

15. Between 1865 and 1871, the adjective ‘national’ in the title was rendered as‘narodné,’ but later it was perceived as too much Czech-sounding, and changed to‘narodnie.’

8 The Polish nation: from a multiethnic to an ethnicallyhomogenous nation-state

1. This, a bit confusing term, is a usual English-language shorthand for GermanRegierungsbezirk, or ‘government district.’

2. The confessional divide separated Lutheran Kashubs from their Catholic counterpartsso effectively that by the turn of the 20th century, the former had abandoned theirlanguage in exchange for the Low German dialect of their Lutheran neighbors. Thelocation of the Lutheran Kashubian villages near Stolp (Słupsk), west of the CatholicKashubs, accelerated this process. In 1856, the Russian linguist, Aleksandr Hilferding,dubbed the Lutheran Kashubs as ‘Slovincians’ (Slavs). (Likewise, the ethnonymsof the Slovaks and Slovenians are also slightly altered versions of the ethnonym‘Slavs.’) From that time, it became popular to consider the Slovincians as an eth-nic group distinct from the Kashubs, though Slovincians referred to themselves as‘Kashubs.’ By extension, scholars made the idiom of the Slovincians into a Slovin-cian language separate from Kashubian, and the German linguist, Friedrich Lorentz(1870–1937) completed the process by publishing his German-language grammarof Slovincian (Slovinzisch) in 1903 in St Petersburg. The Kashubian national activist,Florian Ceynowa (1817–1881), who cooperated with Hilferding, disagreed and main-tained that the Kashubs and the Slovincians spoke a single Kashubian-Slovincianlanguage (kaszébsko-słovjinskô móva), in the scope of which Slovincian was a dialect.After 1945, the German-speaking descendants of the Slovincians were retained inPoland as ‘Polonizeable,’ but almost all of them had left for West Germany by themid-1980s (Okuka and Krenn 2002: 509–512).

3. In these minorities treaties, minorities concerned were defined as ‘ethnic (ethniques-racial), religious or linguistic’ (Dabrowski 1922: 100).

Notes 987

4. Ironically, the broad popular support, which Narutowicz obtained from ethnic Polesand national minorities as well, would have made him into a perfect president forPoland, if the state had been really a recreation of multiethnic Poland-Lithuania, asPolish nationalists claimed it to be in their propaganda.

5. Poland-Lithuania’s Royal Prussia coincided with Germany’s Province of West Prus-sia. In interwar Poland, most of the region was transformed into the Voivodeshipof Torun, popularly known as ‘Pomerania.’ In reality, the voivoideship was the east-ernmost section of the historical region of Pomerania, which had extended fromStralsund to Danzig (Gdansk). This easternmost section, known as Pommerellen´(Lesser Pomerania) in German and Eastern or Gdansk Pomerania in Polish, emerged´as a semi-independent duchy in the 12th century.

6. In 1921, Ukrainians amounted to 42.9 percent of the Orthodox Christians living inPoland, Belarusians and Tutejsi to 34.1 percent, and ethnic Poles to 19.4 percent.(Adamczuk and Zdaniewicz 1991: 41)

7. Between 1923 and 1938, the share of Jewish students in Polish universities declinedfrom 24.9 percent to 9.9 percent, that is, to the level slightly less than the 10 per-cent of Jews in Poland’s population. ‘Superfluous’ Jewish students sought universityeducation abroad (Horak 1961: 114).

8. Article 17 of the Polish-Czechoslovak agreement of 1925 obliged Warsaw to facilitatethe establishment of minority schools with Czechoslovak as the language of instruc-tion in Volhynia. The language is referred to as ‘Czechoslovak,’ in line withCzechoslovak legislation, but the actual medium of education was Czech, which wasduly reflected in Polish statistical yearbooks that described these minority schoolsas ‘Czech-language’ ones. The 31,000 Czechs residing in Volhynia stemmed fromthe 1860s emigration of Bohemian and Moravian farmers to this then-Russianregion, where they had been lured by cheap land. A further 4100 Czechs residedin the Voivodeship of Łódz. They were descendants of the Czech Brethren who´had emigrated to Poland-Lithuania in the mid-17th century (Ogonowski 2000: 51;Tomaszewski 1985a: 158–159).

9. 139,000 Russian-speakers lived in these Polish territories, which had belonged toRussia before 1914. 80,000 of them were descendants of the Old Believers, who,in the wake of the 17th-century reform of the Orthodox Church in Muscovy, hademigrated to Poland-Lithuania and settled in the vicinity of Białystok and Vilnius.The rest were tsarist civil servants and their families who decided not to return toSoviet Russia (Tomaszewski 1985: 148–149).

10. The last Polish-Lithuanian noble poet, who wrote exclusively in Latin, was MathiaeCasimri Sarbievii (Maciej Kazimierz Sarbiewski, 1595–1640). Perhaps he was alsoEurope’s last genuinely Latin-language poet, rewarded for his poetry by Pope UrbanVIII, and known as the ‘Christian Horace.’ His works were translated, emulated, andlauded, especially in France, England, and the Netherlands.

11. The disparity in percentages for 1922 and 1938 was caused by the lowering of theoverall number of deputies in the Sejm from 444 in 1922 to 208 in 1935, in line withthe new 1935 Constitution.

12. Interestingly, in the Polish national master narrative, Panna Maria in Texas isidentified as the first Polish town established in the United States (1854), andWilno in Ontario as the first Polish town established in Canada (1858). Ironically,Szlonzokian immigrants founded the former and Kashubian ones the latter. To thisday, the Szlonzokian (Silesian) and Kashubian (not Polish) languages, though heavilyAnglicized, survive in both localities as the vernacular of the inhabitants.

988 Notes

13. Ironically, the recent influx of Polish immigrants to Ireland made their language thesecond largest in the country, after English. In 2002, only 34,000 spoke Irish (Gaelic)on everyday basis (Crowley 2005a: 189).

14. This high number of declarations of German as a language spoken at home is clearlyof a compensatory or symbolic nature, as the group of German native-speakers amongPoland’s German minority is actually limited to the oldest generation (around 10,000persons in 2007), who finished at least several years of German elementary schoolbefore 1945.

15. It is interesting to note that by 2006, the parliaments of 18 Central and EasternEuropean nation-states have adopted such acts on minorities. They include thepost-communist, post-Yugoslav, and Europe’s post-Soviet states. No similar compre-hensive acts on the protection of minorities are in force in Western Europe, meaningthe area from Germany, Italy, and Greece to Spain. In Italy, Germany, Finland, theNetherlands, or Belgium, the protection of minorities is limited to specific regions,and regulated by regional legislation or acts of lower rank. The protection of theBasques, Catalonians, and Galicians in Spain, and of the Irish, Welsh, and Scots in theUnited Kingdom is ensured within the respective federal frameworks, which grantedthese stateless nations quasi nation-states in the form of autonomous regions. Espe-cially, France and Greece remain relentless in pursuing centralization of the state,which entails the administratively enforced assimilation of minorities.

16. In addition, non-Polish national and ethnic groups, to be eligible for officialrecognition, had to have resided continuously on the territory of the Polish statefor at least 100 years.

17. A leading activist of EBLUL’s Polish branch, Tomasz Wicherkiewicz (1967–), not onlytranslates into Kashubian, but wrote his doctorate on the Wilamowicean language,which was the vernacular of the Galician town of Wilamowice (near Bielsko-Biala)until the late 1940s. The communist authorities identified this language as ‘German,’and banned it from public use until 1956. At present, there are about 70 users ofWilamowicean (all of them older than 70), which they refer to as Wymysojer, becauserthe name of their locality in this language is Wymysoj. Although the language isa dialect of Middle High German, the most famous Wymysojer poet, Florian Biesik(1849–1931?), claimed that it was derived from Dutch, Frisian, or possibly Anglo-Saxon. The native inhabitants of Wilamowice also reject any German identity andmaintain that they stem exclusively from Dutch and Scottish settlers. On the con-trary, German and Polish scholars defined Wilamowicean as a German(ic) dialectthrough the 1990s. Wicherkiewicz was the first one to label it as a language in itsown right, and he is responsible for the current revival of interest in Wymysojer,which, among others, spawned a glossary of this language at Wilamowice’s officialwebsite (Wicherkiewicz 2003).

18. Although it is the first Polish-language genuine Catholic universal encyclopedia, itwas preceded by two more theology-oriented, but quite universal in their outlook,Polish Catholic encyclopedias, both published prior to 1918. Michał Nowodworski’s(1831–1896) 33-volume Encyklopedja koscielna (Church Encyclopedia, 1873–1933[only the last volume came off the press after 1918], Warsaw) was a substantiallyenlarged translation of Heinrich Joseph Wetzer (1801–1853) and Benedikt Welte’s(1805–1885) 13-volume Kirchen-Lexikon oder Encyclopädie der katholischen Theologie(Church Lexicon or Encyclopedia of Catholic Theology, 1847–1860, Freiburg imBreisgau). Stanisław Gall’s (1865–1942) 22-volume Podreczna encyklopedya koscielna(Reference Church Encyclopedia, 1904–1916, Warsaw and Cracow) was the firstoriginal Polish Catholic encyclopedia.

Notes 989

9 The Hungarian nation: from Hungary to Magyarország

1. The dictionary’s title was given in Magyar and also in Latin, Lexicon critico-etymologicum linguae Hungaricae (The Critical-Etymological Dictionary of the MagyarLanguage). This aptly reflected the tight official and social connection that existedbetween both languages for a millennium until 1844.

2. Tellingly, Magyar insurrectionists attacked Soviet bookstores and burned theirRussian-language wares, both perceived as the symbol of the imposed subjugationof Hungary to the Soviet Union. For a Magyar with no command of the language, itwas easy to spot a Russian publication; the presumption was that if it was in Cyrillic,it had to be in Russian (Deák 2007: 46).

3. It is rarely forgotten that prior to his glorious moment in the 1956 Revolution, Nagywas a convinced communist and inner-party schemer. In the latter half of the 1930s,when young and in the Soviet Union he was an NKVD (secret police) informer(Lendvai 2006: 51).

4. There were strong centers of émigré Magyar-language research and publishing inWestern Europe and Northern America. Magyar exiles and refugees, who left Hun-gary during the war, after the communist takeover, and in the wake of the 1956uprising, set them up. Their Polish-, Czech-, and Slovak-language counterparts par-alleled these centers. The Czech and Slovak ones were given a new lease of lifeby the 1968 emigration, and the Polish by the 1981 emigration. Unlike in theCzech, Polish, and Slovak cases, a strong center of independent Magyar-languageculture and publishing developed in Yugoslavia’s Vojvodina, beginning in thelate 1960s.

5. In 2007, however, the Polish identity card (Karta Polaka(( ) for ethnic Poles from thepost-Soviet states was adopted, perhaps, to alleviate the demographic gap left by closeto 3 million Polish citizens who, since 2004, had left Poland for the old EU memberstates. Because in December 2007, Poland, along with eight other new EU members(except Cyprus), was included in the passport-free Schengen area, the visa require-ments for citizens of the post-Soviet states (except the Baltic republics that are part ofthe European Union and the Schengen Area) became more stringent. Naturally, thePolish identity card makes the task of obtaining a Polish/Schengen visa for ethnicPoles easier, like the Magyar identity card in the case of Hungarian/Schengen visasfor ethnic Magyars from Ukraine or Serbia.

10 The Czech Nation: Between Czechoslovak and CzechNationalism

1. This procedure of the so-called ‘national option,’ the Treaty of Versailles guaranteed forthe inhabitants of these Upper Silesian territories, which were transferred to Poland andCzechoslovakia, and on which the plebiscite was conducted. Hence, the phenomenonof national option mainly led to population exchanges between Germany and Poland.

2. The official numbering of the dictionary’s volumes add up only to eight, but thevolume four was split into two parts, each in excess of 1100 pages, like the rest ofthe regular volumes. Hence, I count these two parts as separate volumes.

3. This wartime German Academy of Sciences was the continuation of the Gesellschaftzur Förderung deutscher Wissenschaft, Kunst und Literatur in Böhmen (Society for theAdvancement of German Science, Art, and Literature in Bohemia), established in 1891

990 Notes

in reply to the Francis Joseph Czech Academy of Sciences, Literature and Art, foundedthe previous year.

4. To a degree, Czech Wikipedia, founded in 2002, may become the universalencyclopedia for the modern Czech user, because at 14.4 million words inlate 2006, it amounted to 30 conventional volumes, thus, rivaling the famousOttuv slovník naucný.

5. The 40,000-strong Morawec population of the Hlucínsko (Hultschiner Ländchen)transferred with their region from Germany to Czechoslovakia in 1920, reactedwith the shift in their self-identification by adopting the pro-German identityof ‘Hultschiners,’ as they were known in international literature of the interwarperiod. They referred to themselves as Prajzáci (‘Prussians’). During World War II,though predominantly Slavophone, they unambiguously declared themselves as ‘Ger-mans.’ After 1945, when Germans were expelled from postwar Czechoslovakia, theHultschiners were retained in Czechoslovakia as ‘ethnic Czechs,’ even if they wantedto leave for Germany. (In Poland, the same fate was meted out to over 1 mil-lion so-called ‘Autochthons,’ who were mostly Slavic-speaking as well.) After thefall of communism, the pro-German ethnic Prussian identity revived among theHultschiners and most of them applied for and received German citizenship (com-plete with the German passport), like ‘Autochthonous’ Silesians (Szlonzoks) in Poland’sUpper Silesia. Today, it is ‘cool’ to be a Prajz (Prussian) in the Hlucínsko, andeven some poetry is published in the local Slavic dialect (written in Czech ortho-graphy), which is often dubbed as ‘our language,’ or the ‘Prussian language’ (prajzská(mova). Numerous German(ic) linguistic loans (including the article) differ this dia-lect/language from Czech, as they do the dialect/language of the Silesians (Placek 2000;Rumanová 2005).

11 The Slovak nation: from Czechoslovakia to Slovakia

1. At the turn of the 19th century, in Transylvania, the first generation of Walachian(Romanian) national scholars propounded a similar theory of a treaty, which madethe Walachians into an ally of the Magyars upon the coming of the latter into theregion. Hence, the Walachians were entitled to enjoy the same political status asTransylvania’s other nationes, Magyars, Szeklers, and Saxons (Hitchins 2002: 93–94).

2. Ironically, východniari (Slovjaks) are sometimes eulogized as the ‘first Slovaks,’ whoemigrated to the United States in the 1870s. Similarly, the settlement, whichwas established in 1854 in Texas by ancestors of Poland’s oft-disparged Szlonzoks(Silesians), is reinterpreted by Polish historians as the ‘first Polish town’ in the UnitedStates (Gursky 2000).

3. Russia supported conversion to Orthodox Christianity in eastern Upper Hun-gary in 1913–1914, and Masaryk encouraged this trend in SubcarpathianRuthenia and eastern Slovakia in the interwar period. Between 1921 and1930, the share of Orthodox Christians among the Ruthenians grew from3 percent to 29 percent. But the final ‘success’ came only in 1949 whenthe Greek Catholic Church was liquidated and supplanted by its Ortho-dox counterpart in eastern Slovakia and Soviet Ukraine’s Transcarpathia in1949 (Gajdoš and Konecný 1994: 113, Yuhasz 1929: 25; Ogonowski 2000:253–254).

4. Symptomatically, ‘Šafarík,’ that is, the Czech version of Pavol Jozef Šáfarik’s surname,was used in the society’s name, in line with the tenets of Czechoslovakism, which

Notes 991

was to make Slovak closer to Czech. For instance, the Czech letter [r] is the single oneˇnot employed in Slovak.

5. Tvrdý’s dictionary was published by the Spolok sv. Vojtecha (St Adalbert Soci-ety), which had been established as a Slovakophone but religious organization inNagyszombat (Trnava) in 1879, that is, four years after the abolishment of the Maticaslovenská (1875).

6. HG members brandished the Svatopluk rods band on their left arms, like Germanofficials who wore swastika in the same manner. The HG uniform was a curiousreplication of the Horal (Goralian, Highlander) folk costume in the popular Slovakmind closely associated with the ‘Slovak national hero’ Jánošík. Similarly, Warsawalso drew on the same Tatra folklore sources when the troops of Podhalanian shooterswere added to the Polish army in the interwar period. The term Podhale refers tothe region at the northern feet of the Polish Tatras. The uniform of the shooters,who survive to this day, is reminiscent of the Góral (Goralian, Highlander) folk dress(Krekovic 2005: 189).ˇ

7. In Slovak and Czech, Slovák means the male inhabitant of Slovakia or Slovácko, andthe difference arises only in the female counterpart, that is, Slovenka (Slovak woman),and Slovackaˇ (Slováckan woman). Interestingly, the Polish word for a Slovak woman,Słowaczka, is derived from Slovackaˇ . A Slovak is Słowak in Polish. Furthermore, Slovenkais an extremely close cognate of Slovanka (Slavic woman), which is not true of Slovák,as the Slavic man is Slovan in Slovak and Czech.

8. The book was co-written by Imrich Kotvan (1910–1984), an official in the SlovakMinistry of Education (1938–1945) and Ján Vladimír Ormis (1903–1993), theauthor of books on Slovak diaspora, and Slovak national literature, language, andhistory.

9. In its organization and function, the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia closelyresembled that of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. Both were earmarkedto be the unitary leading forces of Czechoslovakia and the Soviet Union, respect-ively. In the former state, the Slovaks were allowed their own national branch ofthe party, similar to the union national republics’ own national communist partiesin the latter. However, no separate branch of the Communist Party of Czechoslov-akia was set aside for the Czechs, just as no separate communist party was allowedfor the Russians. At the first sight, this looked like discrimination of both states’leading nations, but the mystery was solved quickly when one realized that theCommunist Party of Czechoslovakia was de facto Czech, not unlike the state dom-inated by the Czechs. Similarly, the Russians dominated the Soviet Union, andthe Communist Party of the Soviet Union became the instrument for projectingtheir power (mitigated by rhetoric of communist fraternity and internationalism)statewide.

10. The number is larger than the estimates of Germans in interwar and wartime inde-pendent Slovakia. First, this is the case because in independent Slovakia numerouspersons of mixed (German-Slovak and German-Magyar) parentage declared them-selves as ‘Germans.’ Second, some Germans lived in the Slovak territories that werereincorporated into wartime Hungary, and returned to Czechoslovakia after 1945.

11. In the course of their expulsion, numerous Carpathian Germans lost their lives, likeSudeten Germans. Earlier during the Slovak National Uprisings, insurrectionists hadkilled 2000 local Germans merely because of their ethnicity. But, uniquely in German-dominated Central Europe, 250 Carpathian Germans joined Slovak guerilla groups(Carpathian 2005).

992 Notes

12. In the late 1940s and early 1950s, the Kremlin removed from power these com-munist leaders in the Soviet bloc satellites, who had survived the war in theirown countries, and replaced them with those, who in the wartime had stayed inMoscow. In this manner, Stalin hoped to clamp the uniform Soviet system onto thesubjugated polities. The post-1956 process of de-stalinization supplanted ‘Moscowcommunists’ with ‘local communists.’ Because the latter promised specific ‘nationalpaths to communism,’ they became known as ‘national communists.’ Husák wasthe first national communist leader of Czechoslovakia, János Kádár of Hungary, andWładysław Gomułka of Poland. Because of his Slovak national and communist ideo-logical background, Husák was known as ‘red l’udák,’ or a communist supporter ofSlovak nationalism, as symbolized by the HSL’S.

13. Slovak leaders were glad to let Subcarpathian Ruthenia go, because the UkrainianNational Council of Prešov Ruthenia (eastern Slovakia), established in March 1944,appealed to Moscow to detach this region from Czechoslovakia alongside Subcarpath-ian Ruthenia, and to incorporate both as a united Transcarpathian Ruthenia intoSoviet Ukraine (Pop 2005b: 435).

14. In interwar Czechoslovak statistics, Ruthenians were referred to as ‘Russians,’ ‘LittleRussians’ (Ukrainians), and more rarely as ‘Ruthenians.’

15. The Higher School was originally founded in Košice, but had to be evacuated toTurciansky Svätý Martin after Hungary’s annexation of southern Slovakia in 1938.

16. The last derogation periods and limits on the free movement of Czech, Mag-yar, Polish, and Slovak job-seekers from within the old member states will havedisappeared by 2011.

17. The United Kingdom was the sole large member state from the EU’s old 15 to imme-diately open its employment market to immigrants from new member states on themoment of the 2004 enlargement.

18. The surprising exception is an odd book or two by the famous Slovak dissidentwriter, Tatarka, whose works are permanently out of print in independent Slov-akia, though Czech publishers sporadically bring them out in the Slovak. It seemsthat to Slovaks, Tatarka is too otherworldly and pro-Czech, while Czechs value himas a Slovak representative of late Czechoslovakism, construed as an ideology forpreserving Czechoslovakia as a slightly Czech-dominated union.

12 Conclusion

1. [P]ar la nation; grand mot infiniment commode, parce qu’on en fait ce qu’on veut.2. The political concept of national self-determination emerged in the mid-19th cen-

tury. In 1843, Karl Marx (1818–1883), in his ‘Critique of Hegel’s Philosophy ofRight,’ reacted against the absolutism of monarchical rule by proposing that divinelegitimization of power in democracy is supplanted with constitution, which is the‘self-determination of the people.’ Marx used Volk for ‘people,’ which is also the Ger-man term for ‘ethnolinguistic nation,’ though obviously he meant the populationof a country construed as a civic nation. Pasquale Stanislao Mancini (1817–1888),who prepared the legislative unification of the Italian nation-state in 1861, claimedin 1851 that nationality (nazionalitá, or the fact of belonging to a nation) is thesource and foundation of international law. The Swiss jurist Johan Caspar Bluntschli(1808–1881) agreed and thus famously proposed in 1866 that each nation should

Notes 993

obtain its state, and each state ought to be national in character, hence a nation-state. He employed the German word Nation, which usually refers to ‘civic nation’or the population of a state construed as a nation. However, it is apparent from thecontext that Bluntschli meant ‘ethnolinguistic nation.’ Such Austro-Marxists as KarlRenner (1870–1959) and Otto Bauer (1881–1938) wavered whether it was possibleto contain the social and political effects of the freshly minted principle of nationalself-determination as the ultimate legitimization of statehood and power within mul-tinational Austria-Hungary, or rather this non-national polity had to be divided intoethnolinguistic nation-states (Brunner 1997: 889; Selbstabstimmungsrecht 1998: 22).

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Index

In this index languages are highlighted in BOLD text. Notes are indicated by n. enclosedin parenthesis; e.g. Albanian, 240, 965(n.6). Works and publications are indicated in italics.Scripts and alphabets are mentioned throughout the text; look also in entries for individuallanguages.

Abbas the Great, Shah (r.1587–1629), 322Abdulazüiz, Sultan (r. 1861–1876),

249, 283Abdülmecid, Sultan (r.1839–1861), 281Abhandlung über den Ursprung der Sprache

(The Treatise on the Origin ofLanguage, 1772, Berlin), 44

Abizadeh, Arash, 30, 47Abondolo, Daniel, 66, 646Abraham ben Issac Assa, Rabbi, 318Abramovi(t)sh, Sholem Yankev

(1836–1917), 312Abrams, Brad, 525absolutism, 8, 398, 442, 448, 499, 503,

507, 992academies, promoting language, 82–3,

155, 156Academy of Rusyn Culture, 891Act on Expatriate Slovaks (1997,

Slovakia), 894Act on Higher Education Institutions

(1920, Poland), 589, 602, 604Act on National and Ethnic Minorities

(2004, Poland), 639Act on the Language of Administration

(1924, Poland), 589, 590, 591Act on the Language of Courts

(Poland), 591Act on the Language of Schools

(Poland), 591Act on National and Ethnic Minorities and

on the Regional Language (2004,Poland), 639

Act on the Polish Language (1999,Poland), 632, 633, 640, 643

Act on the State Language (1995,Slovakia), 888, 898

Adam, Eugène (1879–1947), 338Adamczuk, Lucjan, 141, 595, 596, 619,

987, 994

Adelung, Johann Christoph, 83–4, 107,224, 294, 378, 397, 440

Adelung’s dictionary, 84Adler, Hans, 437Adriatic Sea, 435, 495Aegean Islands, 262Aegean Macedonian, 254, 255Aghvanian (Caucasian language), 69, 241,

323, 966(n.6)Ágis tragédiája (The Tragedy of Agis, 1772),

129Agnew, Hugh LeCaine, 491, 493, 495,

499, 537agrarian reform, 671Ahrens, Eduard, 198, 199Akademia Umiejetnosci (AU) (AU,

Academy of Sciences) in 1872,392, 603

Alba Iulia (Gyulafehéhervár,Weissenburg), 123, 125, 206, 658

Albania, 241, 242, 243Albanian, 240, 965(n.6)

alphabets, use of, 54, 61, 66, 67, 69, 91,139, 144, 153, 230, 231, 234, 243,264, 268, 295, 323, 341, 352, 359,362, 471, 475, 965

dialects, 242literature, 244standard, 246Toskicization, 245

Albijanic, Aleksandar, 222Alcuin (Ealhwine, Albinus) of York, 94Aleksandravicius, Egidijus, 376, 384, 387,

388, 398, 403, 586, 980Alexander the Great (356–323 BCE), 253,

257, 259, 321, 360Alexander I, Tsar (r.1801–1825), 375, 376,

380, 381, 384, 388, 676Alexander II, Tsar (r.1855–1881), 115, 163,

387, 392, 394, 396Alexander, Ronelle, 235

1054

Index 1055

Alexis, Tsar (r.1645–1676), 159, 478Alghieri, Dante see DanteAlišauskas, Vytautas, 98, 148, 157, 181,

182, 183, 275, 972, 973, 980Allemanian German (Allemanisch), 27All-Slavic Congress (1848), 47alphabets

Arabic, 39, 126, 139, 143, 157, 264, 266,341, 358, 363

Arebica, 143Armenian, 139, 141, 323, 325in the Balkans, 143–4Bohorcica,ˇ 292, 293, 295Georgian, 160, 962Glagolitic, 68Grazhdanka, 163Greek, 66, 69, 87, 141, 243, 244,

269–70, 276, 341, 360–1, 418, 422Hebrew, 78, 264, 595Irish (Gaelic, Celtic), 92Latin, 27, 39, 41, 48, 50, 54, 56, 61, 70,

112, 113, 119, 139, 141, 143, 153, 155,170, 194, 196, 205, 209, 212–14, 219,225, 227, 228, 230, 231, 233–4, 236,243, 267, 268, 269, 270, 274, 275,278, 286, 292, 293, 299, 314, 317,319, 341, 342, 343, 347, 351, 352,353, 357, 358, 359, 362, 363, 390,391, 393, 394, 396, 398, 402, 418,420, 423, 435, 470–1, 552, 594, 737,745, 891, 935, 976, 977, 978

Magyar (Runic), 67, 966military, 160Romanian, 209Runic, 69Ruthenian, 162, 163Turkic, 267–8see also individual languages; scripts

Alpine Slavs, 288Alps, the, 886, 965(n.5)Alsace, 77, 967Altermatt, Urs, 41, 885Alvarez, Emmanuael, Father, 95, 371Ambedkar, Bhimrao Ramji, 53Ambrosius, Ernst, 923American Revolution (1776), 31, 42, 371Ammon, Ulrich, 44Anderson, Benedict, 25, 43, 44Anderson, Charles Arnold, 25Andrea, Alfred J, 576Angevin see AnjouAnichenka, U. V, 170, 175, 384

Anjou (Angevin) dynasty, 15, 121Antall, József (1932–1939), 887anthropology, 957anti-communism, 936anti-Gypsism, 329anti-semitism, 49, 313, 329, 335, 336, 596,

664, 665, 686, 927Central Europe, 313, 335Hungary, 662, 664, 665, 686, 687–8Poland, 336, 594–6, 662, 940Romania, 927Russian Empire, 336, 398, 927Slovakia, 838, 855Western Europe, 49, 71, 307, 313,

317, 335Antohi, Sorin, 217Antonovich, A K, 143Anyanyelvápolók Szövetsége (Union of

the Cultivators of the MotherTongue), 704

Apponyi Law, 555Aprilov, Vasil (1789–1847), 279Aptroot, Marion, 316Arabic, xx, 33, 39, 41, 48, 59, 91, 93, 113,

119, 126, 139, 142, 143. 144, 157, 220,227, 232, 233, 239, 243, 244, 258–9,260, 262, 264, 265–7, 271–2, 273–4,275, 278, 287, 310–11, 314, 317, 319,323, 328, 330, 341, 351, 354, 358,363, 471, 475, 961(n.28), 961(n.30),963(n.53), 969(n.27), 970, 979

Arabic (Hindu-Arabic) numerals, 266, 351,354, 360

Aramaic, 131, 139, 142, 301, 307–11,317, 341, 965, 969(n.29), 970,977(n.48), 978

Arbëresh, 243see also Albanian

archdioceses, 289archives/libraries, 8, 38Area Studies programmes, 12Arebica, 143Aristarchus, sive de contemptu linguae

Teutonicae (Aristarchus, or on theContempt for the German Language,1617, Beuthen an der Oder [BytomOdrzanski]), 45´

Armenia, 141, 320–3, 324, 326, 327, 363Armenian, 41, 67, 69, 113, 131, 139, 141,

142, 213, 240, 258, 259, 264, 271, 281,282, 301, 307–8, 314, 317, 320–8, 331,

1056 Index

341, 358, 362, 363, 419, 706, 808, 962,966(n.6), 970(n.29), 977(n.48), 978

Armistice Treaty (1945), 689Armstrong, John A, 38, 978, 995Arnautovic, Aleksandr, 353Arndt, Christian Gottlieb von

(1743–1829), 477, 480, 489, 531Arndt, Ernst Moritz (1769–1860), 1, 30,

47, 400, 477, 480, 489, 531Aromanians, 202, 205, 210, 216–17Árpád Dynasty, 121Arrow Cross regime, 474, 689Árva, 578, 582–4, 732–3, 823–4Ashkenazim/Ashkenazic Jews, 307, 309,

311, 317Ashxarhabar (Western Armenian), 325,

326, 327Astle, Thomas, 25Atanasov, Petur, 355Athens, 96, 244, 251, 253–4, 259, 262–3,

283, 287, 975(n.27)Athos, Mount, 223, 970(n.2), 975(n.27)Atlas gwar polskich (The Small Atlas of the

Polish Dialects, 13 fascicles,1959–1970, Wrocław), 626

Atlas slovenského jazyka (Atlas of theSlovak language, 1968–1984,Bratislava), 796, 881

atmoda, 194Attica, 83, 256, 258–260Attila, József (1905–1937), 474AU (Akademia Umiejetnosci, Academy of

Sciences, Cracow), 392, 401, 415,427–8, 429, 603, 604, 605

Augustín, Marko, 697Aukštaitijan dialect, 182, 183,

186, 187Aurora (periodical), 441AU’s Komisja Jezykowa (Language

Commission), 427, 428, 429, 604, 605Austria-Hungary, 2, 4, 6, 9, 13–14, 19,

48ff, 49, 51, 84, 90, 137ff, 139, 142,143, 146, 175, 211, 296, 297, 308,313, 348–9, 368, 390–1, 399, 409ff,411, 415, 434, 456ff, 457, 458, 459,460, 464, 465, 471, 483, 487, 502,507ff, 508, 510, 511, 512, 515, 516,518, 523ff, 524, 525, 553, 557, 558,570, 574ff, 575, 576, 582, 583, 587,595ff, 596, 600, 609, 645ff–50, 652,653, 655, 657, 658, 664ff, 667, 668,676, 680, 681, 684, 711, 714, 718ff,

719–21, 725, 734, 742, 756, 765, 793,795, 796, 804ff, 806, 809, 810, 813,817, 821, 829ff, 830, 831, 894, 895,903, 909, 910, 912, 913, 916, 918–23,927, 929, 935, 963, 970, 983, 984, 993

Ausgleich(Kiegyezés, 1867, Austria-Hungary), 391,

457, 460, 466, 503, 553, 681,716–17, 742, 798, 810, 909, 914,919, 981(n.1)

(1905, Moravia), 50, 69, 117, 163, 170,172, 175, 177, 192, 199, 210, 212,250, 273, 326, 337, 346, 353, 357,385, 396, 398, 401–3, 414, 415, 427,462, 474, 475, 502, 510, 511, 512,518, 555, 556, 562, 566, 569, 588,597, 680, 716, 741, 742, 750, 762,811, 812, 827, 909, 919

Außendeutsch, 85Austria

German-Austria, 498, 513, 658, 721,725–6, 734, 738–9, 743, 753, 823

Lower Austria, 510, 726, 830Upper Austria, 15, 145, 984(n.4)

Austria-Hungary, break up of, 411, 558,647, 804, 921

Austrian Empire, 17–19, 47, 49, 84, 97,108, 145, 223, 248, 294–6, 312, 345,348, 365, 389, 390–1, 399, 441, 443,446, 448, 452, 453, 454, 456–7, 478,483, 487, 497–500, 504, 507, 523,525, 538–9, 549, 551, 553, 569, 649,668, 715, 717–18, 793, 806, 809–10,909–10, 970,(n.30), 982(n.4)

Austrian Social Democratic Party, 511,653, 655

Austroslavism, 539, 716, 717, 718, 809Auszra (Lithuanian periodical), 185authoritarianism, 36, 58, 610, 664, 683,

748, 804, 852, 887, 894, 947autochthonous communities, 889Auty, Robert, 100, 103, 107, 136, 491, 493,

495, 507, 517, 567, 764Avanesau, R. I, 171Avar Khanate (Khaganate) 7th century, 14,

66–8, 218Avar (language), 14, 66, 67, 68, 120, 120,

218, 966Avars, 14, 63, 66–8, 87, 202, 218,

966(n. 8), 982(n. 10)Avvakum Petrov (1620–1682), 159Azeris, 268, 327, 706

Index 1057

Babejová, Eleonóra, 557Badeni, Kazimierz (1846–1909), 509Baedeker, Karl, 613, 615Baerlein, Henry, 714Bagin, Anton, 131, 134, 135, 136, 480,

528, 529, 535Bahlcke, Joachim, 584, 593, 613, 619Bajerowa, Irena, 608, 614, 619, 622, 623,

628, 629, 632Bajt, Veronika, 298Bajza, Josef Ignác (1755–1836), 134, 533Bakker, Peter, 334Bakos, Ferenc, 705, 851, 947Bakoš, Vladimír, 851Balaton Lake, 16, 125Balassa, József, 127, 682Balassi, Bálint, 127–8Balážová, L’ubica, 900, 901, 950, 955Balázs, Géza, 67, 124, 126, 424, 674,

705, 966Balcová, Tána, 795, 898ˇBalhar, Jan, 796, 881Balkan Wars (1912–1913), 5, 250Balkans, the, 1, 5, 10, 13, 16, 18, 34, 37,

48, 64, 65, 71, 81, 87, 92–3, 113,125–6, 137, 140–4, 147, 148, 150–1,158, 202–3, 205, 211, 216, 221, 223,236, 240–1, 245–9, 254, 256, 258–9,262, 264–5, 277–8, 282, 286, 291, 301,307, 317, 319, 320–2, 327–8, 332, 338,354–5, 361–2, 363, 404, 452, 457–8,468, 807, 820, 842, 887, 926, 966(n.6),975(n.27), 978(n.48)

Balkanization, 5Baltic Sea, 180Banac, Ivo, 255, 340Banat, 16, 129, 211, 278, 285–6, 432, 436,

455, 468–9, 657–8, 673, 695, 731, 830,856, 876, 982(n.10)

Bandtkie, Jerzy Samuel, 379Baník, Anton Augustín (1900–1978), 859,

860, 934Bankowski, Andrzej, 120, 334, 379, 392,´

643, 950Banniard, Michel, 98Banská Bystrica (Besztercebánya, Neusohl),

483, 552, 563, 564, 772, 833, 848, 857Baptism by the Savica Waterfall (Slovenian

epic poem), 295Barany, George, 434, 435, 439, 440, 442Baranya, 661

Socialist Republic of, 661

Bárczi, Géza (1894–1975), 625, 681, 703,704, 933, 943

Barker, Peter, 730Barta, Róbert, 777, 783, 872Bartek, Heinrich (1907–1986), 845–6, 849,

859–60, 880, 934Barth, Frederik, 38Bartoš, František (1837–1906), 759Barvins’kyi, Volodymyr, 391, 401Basaj, Mieczysław, 103, 107, 491Basanavicius, Jonas (1851–1927), 185ˇBasil (Vasily) III, Grand Duke of

Muscovy, 151Báthory dynasty, 125Batsányi, János (1763–1845), 439Batthyány, Lajos (1809–1849), 454Battle of Mohács (1526), 16, 88, 102,

125, 818Battle of White Mountain (Bíla Hora,

today part of Prague) (1620), 16, 102,125, 133, 477, 486, 488, 819

Bauer, Otto (1881–1938), 574Baumgarten, J, 316, 653, 993Bavaria / Bavarians, origin of name, 27,

76, 84, 86, 102, 288, 343, 421, 659,726, 976(n.41)

Bavaria, 27, 76, 84, 86, 102, 288, 343, 421,659, 726

Bavarian (variety of chancery German),73, 75, 79, 80, 82, 85, 124, 288, 977

Bavarian-Austrian (Druckersprache),79, 80

Bavarians, 288Beauvois, Daniel, 114, 116, 164, 371, 430Bechný, Jaroslav, 582Bednarczuk, Leszek, 120Belarus, 4, 13, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 36, 42,

51, 54, 55, 79, 91, 140, 155, 157, 158,165, 167, 168, 170, 171, 173, 178,179, 188, 191, 357, 358, 373, 411,412, 413, 576, 577, 585, 586, 590,600, 610, 611, 612–13, 614, 615, 616,617, 618, 626, 630, 634, 846, 930,958, 970(n.30), 971(n.7), 973, 980

independence, 51, 172, 173, 174, 411partitioning of, 371, 374, 412

Belarusian (see White Russian, WhiteRuthenian)

Belarusian national movement, 170,401, 909

Belarusian-Russian creole, 174see also Trasianka

1058 Index

Belarusians, 14, 54, 55, 119, 120, 140, 157,158, 165, 167, 168, 172, 173, 188, 189,191, 340, 388, 409, 413, 585, 586,590, 591, 594, 597, 599, 600, 602,603, 611–14, 616, 618, 619, 628, 635,636, 637, 639, 647, 656, 678, 686,746, 820, 893, 939, 960, 972, 973, 987

see also GudaiBelgrade, 22, 53–4, 81, 149, 223, 224, 226,

227, 228, 229, 231, 234, 239, 248,251, 254, 280, 282, 297–8, 354, 469,658–9, 661, 663, 666, 686, 697,699–700, 717, 731, 926

Belgrade military convention, (1918),658, 731

Belina, Pavel, 722, 730, 734, 738, 775,ˇ777, 790

Belzyt, Leszek, 581, 582Bem, Józef (1794–1850), 455Bembo, P, 45, 46Bem-Wisniewska, Ewa, 109Ben Yehuda (see Perelman, Eliezer)Benda, Kálmán, 434Benedikz, Benedikt S, 346Beneš, Edvard (1884–1948), 100, 557, 690,

719, 720, 735, 750, 754, 765, 771,772, 773, 774, 775, 813, 837, 838,857, 858, 861, 862, 872

Benešovský, M (1550–1595), 101Benko, Loránd, 67, 124, 126, 128, 275,

440, 442, 448, 627, 646, 683, 688,705, 945

Bercic, Branko, 344, 345, 346Bercic, Joanne, 476Berdychowska, Bogumiła, 619, 623Berezowski, Cezary, 384Berlin, 2, 4, 5, 18, 20, 21, 30, 45, 47, 48,

49, 74, 84, 116, 138, 213, 249, 312,348, 365–6, 375, 379, 383, 389, 399,404, 408, 410–11, 426, 453, 525, 566,569, 570, 575–6, 582, 585–6, 592, 597,610–12, 615–17, 630, 653, 657, 660,665, 675, 684, 690, 709, 729–30,740–1, 753–4, 761, 765–6, 769, 837–8,851, 854–6, 861, 893, 914, 919, 924–7,935, 938, 946, 974(n.27), 981(n.10)

Berlin, Isiah, 30Bernoláctina, 135, 138, 449, 479, 512,

534, 535–7, 541–4, 546–7, 549, 550–1,744, 763, 808, 814, 820, 842, 845,899, 911

Bernolák, Anton (1762–1813), 134, 436,533, 534, 911, 985

Beron, Peter, 280Beschwerden und Klagen der Slaven in

Ungarn über die gesetzwidrigen übergriffeder Magyaren, Die (The Complaintsand Accusations of the Slavs inHungary About the Illegal Attacks ofthe Magyars, 1843, Leipzig), 543–5

Bessarabia, 18, 20, 21, 141, 208, 211, 212,213, 214, 269, 352, 353, 609, 658,666, 669, 694, 937, 969(n.25)

see also Moldavia; MoldovaBessenyei, György (von) (1747–1811), 129,

437, 438, 440Bethlen, István (1874–1946), 660, 663, 664Białystok (Belastok), 586, 590, 612, 614,

628, 987Bible language (Biblictina), 102, 469–70,

533, 538, 843, 911Bibles

Albanian, 244, 246Armenian, 323, 325Belarusian, 173Bernoláctina, 534Biblictina, 133, 469, 533Bosnian, 233Brzes´´c Bible, 110´Bulgarian, 284Burgenland Croatian, 237Church Slavonic, 155Croatian, 220, 228Czech, 99, 100, 490, 519Esperanto, 337Estonian, 198, 199Gagauz, 269Goralian, 638Grabar, 324Greek, 259, 260, 261Gutenberg’s Latin, 95, 342Hebrew original, 308Ivrit, 310Karaim, 272King James, (1611), 344Kralice, 101, 102, 103, 536Latgalian, 196Latvian, 194, 195Lithuanian, 182Little Russian, 169–70Livonian, 197Lower Saxonian, 74Luther’s, 82, 343

Index 1059

Macedonian, 252, 253Magyar, 122, 123Ostróg (Ostrih), 174Ottoman, 266Polish, 110Prekmurjan, 299Romani, 333–4Russian, 163Ruthenian, 154, 177Septuagint, the, 259Serbian, 227Serbo-Croatian, 227Skaryna’s, 174Slaveno-Bulgarian, 280Slavic/Slovenian, 292, 293, 296, 298Slovak, 135Sorbian, Lower, 303–4Thuringian, 79Ukrainian, 178of Vizsoly, 123Vulgate, 69, 93, 122, 228, 260, 304, 310Walachian, 206Yiddish, 312

Biblictinaˇ , 102, 133, 134, 135, 136, 138,159, 449, 450, 469–70, 492, 533, 535,536, 537, 538, 540, 541, 542, 543,544, 546, 547, 548, 549, 550, 551,555, 560, 561, 638, 744, 752, 763,808, 842, 843, 844, 845, 546, 911, 985

Biblioteka Warszawska (monthly), 427Bibó, István, 576Bienkowska, Barbara, 110, 152, 371, 416,´

608, 622Biewer, Ludwig, 98, 201, 584Bil’ak, Vasil, 866, 868Bildungsbürgertum, 437, 961(n.32)bilingualism, 92, 131, 263, 306, 330, 442,

501, 505, 509, 510, 515, 667, 670, 697,719, 734, 741, 742, 747, 756, 758, 764,768, 769, 782, 792, 793, 794, 799,858, 861, 867, 881, 882, 886, 897,898, 928, 931, 941, 944, 948, 951, 954

Billig, Michael, 25, 38, 62bi-/multi-lingualism, 10, 49Binnendeutsch (Common Standard

German), 85Bíró, Mátyás Dévai (1500–1545), 124Birobidzhan, Jewish Autonomous Soviet

Region of, 58, 315Black Death (1347–1354), 71, 307

Black Sea, 16, 17, 66, 69, 125, 166, 256,271, 283, 322, 323, 361, 363, 474,475, 965(n.5), 966(n.8)

Blahoslav, Jan, 101, 111, 481Blaj (Balázsfalva, Blasendorf), 451Blanke, Richard, 416, 579, 585Blažek, Jan (1523–1571), 101, 481Bloch, Howard R, 175Bloomfield, Leonard, 25, 32, 33, 35Bluntschli, Johann Caspar, 11, 992, 993Bobrownicka, Maria, 47, 904Bobula, Ida, 476Boccaccio, Giovanni (1313–1375), 45, 95Böckh, Richard (1824–1927), 11, 49,

399, 403Bogdan, Henry, 696, 698Bogomilism, 122, 241, 468Bogomils, 219, 286, 322Bogurodzica (Polish religious song), 109Bohemia, 15, 19–20, 50–1, 68, 70–3, 80,

87–8, 100, 102–9, 114, 117, 122, 131,136–7, 144, 145, 296, 302, 344, 368,391, 408, 417–18, 421–2, 425–6, 431,454, 457, 463, 474, 476, 478–80,482–93, 496–517, 523–4, 528, 530,532, 536–7, 540, 542, 554, 558, 560,569, 596, 602, 610, 642, 654, 662,665, 667, 674, 715–16, 719–20, 726,730, 734, 741, 743, 751, 756, 758–9,762, 765–6, 768, 770–1, 773, 776–7,782, 790–1, 795, 799–800, 806–7, 809,810, 813, 819, 832, 834, 837–8, 843,845, 854, 880, 883, 885, 902, 910–15,919, 925, 928, 935, 965(n.5),976(n.41), 983(nn. 3, 6), 989(n.3)

Bohemia and Moravia, Protectorate of, 15,20, 408, 482, 610, 665, 667, 762, 765,766, 768, 795, 838, 854, 883, 902,925, 928, 935

Bohemian, 69, 76, 88, 99, 100, 101, 102,103–8, 111, 120, 132, 133, 137, 138,183, 290, 293, 304, 417, 444, 453,469, 477, 479, 481, 482, 484, 488,489, 490, 491, 492, 494, 496, 497,498, 501, 504, 505, 507–12, 519, 523,524, 530, 531, 532, 533, 535, 536,537–40, 542, 544, 560, 582, 642, 716,718, 744, 750, 776, 790, 806, 807,833, 864, 906, 907, 910, 911, 915,916, 968, 985, 987

see also Czech, MoravianBohemian Museum, 492, 494

1060 Index

Bohorcica (script), 295Boia, Lucia, 464Bolshevik Revolution (1917), 31, 142, 164,

184, 350, 356, 408, 411, 558, 653,659, 719, 735, 804, 846, 909, 919, 921

Bolzano, Bernard (1781–1848), 108, 496,497, 498, 499, 716

Boncza-Tomaszewski, Nikodem, 575Bonn, 633–4, 939, 948books

Albanian, 224, 244Bernoláctina, 541Biblictina, 541Bulgarian/Slaveno-Bulgarian, 277, 280Czech, 488, 490, 493, 514, 755, 896Czechoslovakia, 783–4, 794German, 74Greek, 259hand written (Orthodox Church), 81Hungary, 678, 713Latgalian, 194, 196Latin, 40, 89Latvian, 194Lithuanian, 187, 188, 396Macedonian, 248Magyar, 128Polish, 414, 608, 620, 640Russia, 152Ruthenian, 177Samogitian, 396scripts used, 81–2Slovak, 533, 768, 841, 858–9, 876, 896Slovjak, 822Yiddish, 314

Boris I, Khan (r. 852–888), 70Borowski, Andrzej, 126, 186, 476Borys, Wiesław, 643, 955Bosák, Ján, 780, 851, 883Bosancica, 143, 219, 220, 232, 236,

976(n.32)Bosnia, xiv, 4, 13ff–16, 19, 20ff, 22, 23, 37,

48, 50, 53ff, 54, 58, 121, 126, 142ff,143, 147, 148, 219ff, 220, 221, 222,226, 227, 229, 230, 231, 232, 233,235, 237, 240, 246, 254, 283, 286,289, 291, 332, 358, 359, 363, 468,469, 471, 850, 958, 975, 976, 471

Bosniaks, 233–4, 976(n.32)Bosnian, 14, 37, 50, 53ff, 54, 126, 128,

143ff, 144, 149, 217, 219, 220, 222,226, 227, 230, 232–3, 235, 236, 240,

241, 251, 340, 341, 469, 471, 718,961, 974, 976

Bosnian, Croatian, Serbian: A Grammar(Madison WI 2006), 235

Bosnian, Croatian, Serbian: A Textbook(Madison WI 2006), 235

Bosnians, 14, 37, 53, 128, 144, 222, 227,340, 718, 974

Bosnian War (1992–1995), 22, 233Botto, Július (1848–1926), Jr, 814Bougarel, Xavier, 231, 233bourgeoisie, 39, 339, 389, 413, 640, 812bourgeois-national deviation, 53, 864,

873, 878, 879, 945Boyen, Professor, 450Bozveli, Neofit (1785–1848), 280Bradley, John F. N, 507, 510, 513Brandenburg, 15, 17, 21, 76, 101, 102,

302, 305–6, 482, 509Brasov (Brassó, Kronstadt), 81, 206, 440Bratislava (Pozsony, Preßburg), 2–3, 14,

16, 81–2, 125, 129, 131, 133, 134, 431,432–3, 449–50, 453, 461, 465, 482–3,492, 514, 519, 520, 523, 529, 532,533, 534, 535–7, 542, 544–5, 547,549–53, 559, 562–3, 565–6, 611, 625,645, 657, 665, 677, 702, 705, 709–10,712, 720, 724, 731, 747, 752, 758,763–4, 766, 768, 772, 774, 778, 780,783, 785, 789–90, 795–7, 799, 820,823, 829, 832–3, 836–9, 841–3, 846,849–50, 852–7, 859–61, 865, 867, 869,874–5, 877–83, 886, 888–90, 898–900,903, 911, 934, 949, 951, 958(n.12),981(n.2), 984(n.7), 985(n.13)

see also Preßburg; PozsonyBray, Reginald George Arthur de, 528Brest Litovsk (Brzes´´c), 411´Breton, Roland, 82, 340, 500, 783, 974Breza, Edward, 348Brezhnev doctrine, 777, 865Britannica World Language Dictionary

(1945, Chicago), 316Brno (Brünn), 80, 135, 479, 484, 492, 507,

508–9, 511, 566, 574, 653, 757,984(n.7)

Brock, Peter, 528, 535, 540, 541, 545, 547,550, 557, 985, 986

Brockhaus, Arnold (1772–1823), 407, 408Bronsztejn, Szyja, 619Brown, L. Carl, 205Brubaker, Rogers, 24, 42

Index 1061

Brückner, Aleksander (1856–1939), 120,428, 429, 605, 626, 763, 932, 945

Brünn programme, 574, 653Brus jazyka ceskéhoˇ (The Whetstone of

the Czech Language, 1877, Prague),516, 759

brusici, 516ˇBruski, Jan Jacek, 178Brussels, 23, 49, 631, 644, 707, 884, 949,

975(n.27)Bryce, James, 205Brzes´´c Bible, 110´Brzezinski, Andrzej M, 148´Buc, B. S, 722, 829, 832, 967Bucharest, 20, 65, 178, 206, 209, 210,

213–14, 216–17, 244, 255, 280, 282–3,354, 452, 625, 657–9, 666, 671–3, 689,693–5, 699, 706, 709, 735, 825, 830,926, 937, 981(n.15)

Buck, Carl Darling, 26, 593Buda (Budin, Ofen), see BudapestBudapest, 3, 50, 67, 130, 146, 167, 201,

226, 227, 240, 280, 282, 339, 457,459, 460, 461, 462, 463, 464, 466,468, 469, 470, 471, 475, 476, 482.484, 511, 512, 517, 520, 521, 525,527, 554, 555, 556, 557, 558, 560,563, 564, 569, 583, 610, 625, 627,652, 653, 654, 655, 656, 657, 658,659, 660, 661, 662, 664, 665, 666,667, 668, 669, 671, 672, 674, 675,681, 682, 683–9, 691–5, 698–9, 700–1,703–12, 717–19, 721, 724–6, 731–2,734–6, 740, 742, 745, 753, 758, 763–4,766, 774, 799, 804, 810, 811–12, 817,819–21, 823, 825–6, 828, 832, 838–9,841–2, 847, 850, 853–6, 858, 861, 889,893, 895, 912, 924–6, 928, 937, 940,946, 951–2, 958, 986

Budmani (1835–1914), Petar, 226Budny, Symon (1530–1593), 154Budzhak, 16Budzyk, Kazimierz, 118Buffa, Ferdinand, 899Bug (Western), 610Bug (Southern), 165, 213Buga, Kazimieras, 189¯Bukovina, 17, 20, 21, 146, 167, 175–8,

208, 211, 213, 313, 511, 601, 609, 658,694, 735, 745, 937, 981(nn.13, 15)

Bukvitsa script (Glagolitic), 69Bulei, Ion, 453

Bulgaria, 249, 281, 283, 976(n.40)Bulgarian

Banat, 285, 286, 468, 469early development, 276, 279official language, 283Old, 28, 34, 158, 252, 280publications, 277, 281, 975(n.30)purifying, 282standard, 252, 276, 280, 281, 283, 284,

286, 287, 354, 468vernacular, 277, 280, 283

Bulgarian Church, 277, 281, 283, 284, 284Bulgarian Empire

first (681–1018), 69, 242, 246, 249,255, 276

second (1185–1396), 158, 219, 242, 246,276, 287

Bulgarian Exarchate, 249, 254, 258, 283Bulgarianization, forced, 53, 285, 287Bulgarian Literary Society, 283Bulgarian National Library, 283Bulgarian national movement, 282,

283, 354Bulgarian Patriarchate, 70, 249, 276–9, 284Bulgarians, Banat, 468, 469Bunjevci, 239, 240, 469, 471, 662–3,

686–7, 698Bunjevcian, 239, 240, 469Burgenland, 19, 72, 237–8, 468, 670, 674,

726, 793, 830, 978(n.49)Burgenland Croatian, 237, 238, 468burghers, 102, 105, 109, 110, 113, 115,

119, 123, 131, 144, 145, 146, 153,292, 368, 380, 381, 433, 434, 437,446, 465, 487, 488, 524, 530, 573,649, 650, 716, 807, 808, 908, 910, 916

Burke, Peter (1729–1797), 30, 40–1, 83, 86,98, 263, 266, 279, 968

Buzássyová, Klára, 900, 901, 950, 955Byelorussia, 36, 52, 55, 120, 172, 173, 174,

189, 358, 818, 936, 960, 972)2see also Belarusia

Byelorussian, 168, 818, 846see also Belarusian

Bystron, Jan Stanisław, 480´Byzantium, 68, 70–1, 87, 93–4, 96–7, 151,

218–19, 242, 246–7, 249, 255–7, 259,263, 265, 269, 286–7, 321, 324,964(n.3), 966(n.6), 975(n.27)

see also Roman Empire, Eastern

1062 Index

Cakavian, 221, 222, 225, 236, 237, 291,467, 468

see also Croatian, KajkavianCakavian society, 237calendar, Julian, 376, 587, 975Calepino, Ambrogio (1440–1510), 95Calepinus, 96Caliphate, 41, 93, 266, 321, 342, 961(n.30)Calvet, Louis-Jean, 473Canaanic (Jewish Slavic), 71Canetti, Elias (1905–1994), 320Cantemir, Dimitrie (1673–1723), 212Capka, František, 502, 855Caprivi, Leo von (1831–1899), 404Caranthanii (see Carinthia)Caraus, Tamara, 215Carinthia, 14–15, 17, 63, 67, 288–97,

299Carmichael, Cathie, 65, 148, 231, 233Carniola, 15, 17, 19, 21, 50, 288, 291–297Carniolan, 289, 290, 291, 292, 293, 294,

295, 296Carnogurský, Ján, 883, 884Carolingian Empire, 71, 74, 77, 96

see also Frankish EmpireCarolingian miniscule, 68, 71, 74, 77, 92,

94, 95, 96, 342Carpathia, 470, 687, 690, 705, 767, 774,

856, 874, 928see also Subcarpathian Ruthenia,

Transcarpathian RutheniaCarpathians, the, 14, 63–4, 67, 202–4, 218,

271, 289, 391, 583, 673, 695, 733, 736,825, 857, 930, 954, 974(n.25), 984(n.6)

Caspian Sea, 71, 142, 271, 646, 965(n.5),967(n.11)

Castellan, Georges, 453, 456, 462, 464Castilian, 1, 40, 96, 317–18Cathars, 286Catherine the Great, Tsaritsa

(r.1762–1796)115, 375Caucasus, the, 67, 91, 241, 266, 268, 271,

283, 286, 320–2, 327–8, 362, 386, 468,935, 965(n.5), 966(nn.6, 8)

Ceausescu, Nicolae (1918–1989), 695Cechien (see Czech Republic)Cechy (see Czech Republic)censuses, and language measurement, 9,

49, 239, 251, 256, 399, 501, 580, 590,597, 599, 662, 685–6, 691, 699, 707–8,729, 773, 781, 853, 870, 875, 931

Austria-Hungary, 2, 4, 6, 9, 13, 14,19, 48–9, 51, 84, 90, 137, 139, 142–3,146, 175, 211, 296–7, 308, 313, 348–9,368, 390–1, 399, 409, 411, 415, 434,456–9, 460, 464–5, 471, 483, 487,507–8, 510–12, 515–16, 518, 523–5,553, 557–8, 570, 574–6, 582–3, 587,595, 600, 609, 645–50, 652–3, 655,657–8, 664, 667–8, 676, 680–1, 684,711, 714, 718–21, 725, 734, 742,756, 765, 793, 795, 804, 806, 809–10,813, 821, 829–31, 840, 893–5, 903,909–10, 912–13, 916, 918–23, 927,929, 935, 963, 970, 983–4, 993

Hungary, 652Poland-Lithuania, 13, 16–17, 40, 70–3,

80–1, 88–90, 97, 101, 104, 110–19,123–6, 131, 137–8, 140–2, 145,150–2, 155–9, 162–3, 165–6, 168,180–3, 186–8, 193–4, 196, 198, 201,205, 219, 220, 252, 272, 277, 278,307, 312, 323, 325, 344, 346, 351,355, 365, 368, 370–80, 382–3,385–6, 388, 390–1, 394, 397–400,402–3, 410, 412–15, 418, 424, 426,429, 434–6, 438, 443, 446, 453, 470,473, 476–8, 482, 490, 523, 573–4,576–80, 583, 588–9, 592, 594, 597,599, 610, 626, 647–9, 656, 732, 744,797, 806, 818, 823, 903, 907–9, 912,914, 924–5, 929, 947, 958, 961, 969,970, 973, 979, 987

Central Europe (1916, London), 12Central Europe

as a concept, 1definitions of, 224location of, 73, 249, 531, 985, 986

Central European studies, 4Cernová massacre, 556–7Ceská mluvnice (The Czech Grammar,

1951, Prague), 785Ceské akademie cisare Františka Josefa pro

vedy, slovesnost a umení (FrancisˇJoseph Czech Academy of Sciences,Literature and Art), 508

ceském jazyce, O (On the Czech Language,1924, Prague), 517

Cesko (see Czech Republic)Cesko-nemecká právneˇ -politická terminologie-

(Czech-German Legal and PoliticalTerminology, 1850, Prague), 513

Index 1063

Cesko-nemecký slovník zvlásteˇgrammaticko-fraseologický(Czech-German Grammatical andPhraseological Dictionary, 1878–1893,Prague), 515, 761, 848

Ceskoslovanská Jednota (Organization ofCzechoslav [Czechoslovak] Unity),463, 512, 810, 811, 812

Ceskoslovenský differenciálny slovnik(Czech-Slovak Dictionary of WordsThat Are Different in Both Languages,1922, Trnava), 847

Ceskoslovenský národ (The CzechoslovakNation, Bratislava), 520

Cesko-slovenský slovník (The Czech SlovakDictionary, 1979, Bratislava), 565,780, 882, 898, 944

Ceský etymologický slovník (CzechEtymological Dictionary, 2001,Voznice), 796

Ceský jazykový atlas (Atlas of the CzechLanguage, 1992–2006, Prague),796, 881

Cetinje, 80–2, 151, 971(n.3)Chaghatay, 273, 962Chamerska, Halina, 110, 152, 371, 416,

608, 622chancery languages, 73, 74, 75, 79, 99,

132, 292Bohemian, 34, 69, 76, 88, 99, 100–8,

111, 120–1, 132–3, 136–8, 159, 183,290, 293, 304, 417, 422, 444, 453,469, 477, 479, 481–2, 484, 488–92,494, 496–8, 501, 504–12, 519,523–4, 530–40, 542, 544, 560, 582,642, 716, 718, 744, 750, 773, 776,790, 806–7, 819, 833, 864, 906–7,910–12, 915–16, 968, 983,985, 987

Czech, 101, 102, 106, 107, 109, 498, 534Magyar, 121, 123Polish, 109, 118replacement of, 79Ruthenian, 152

Charlemagne (r.768–814), 17, 75, 94, 935,964(n.3)970

Charles I, Emperor (r.1914–1918), 652, 721Charles IV, Emperor, 99, 481, 500, 503,

504, 653, 660see also Charles I, King

Charles I, King (r.1346–1378), 482Charter 2007 (Rusyns), 891

Charter 77 (Czechoslovakia), 866–7, 891Charter of Fundamental Rights and

Freedoms (1991, Czechoslovakia),792, 795

Chászár, Edward, 775Chełm (Kholm), 385, 410, 585, 970(n.30)Chernivtsi (Cernauti, Czernowitz), 211,¸

313, 601, 981(n.13), 984(n.6)Chernodrinski, Vojdan Pop Georgiev

(1875–1951), 250children exchange (grass roots

multilingualism), 465Chisin˘¸ au (Kishinev, Kishin ˙˘ eu), 212, 214˙Chlebowczyk, Józef, 26Chocholatý, František, 775Chojnowski, Andrzej, 178Chraska, Antonín (1868–1953), 296Christianity, Latin, 88Christianizing mission (863–867), 68, 421Chrysoloras, Nikos, 263Chubynskyi, Pavlo (1839–1884), 443, 444Chudes (Estonians), 197Church

Armenian Apostolic, 322, 977Bulgarian, 277, 281, 283, 284Greek Catholic (Uniate), 140, 355national Czechoslovak, 738, 750

Church Slavonic, 35, 40, 68, 70, 73, 81,82, 87–9, 97, 101, 109, 112, 113, 114,119, 128, 132, 140, 150–2, 154–6,158–65, 171, 174–6, 180, 198, 204,205–7, 218–25, 227, 228, 236, 247–9,252, 254–6, 260, 271, 276–85, 289,291, 294, 308, 310, 325, 341, 350,351–7, 359–62, 371–2, 385–6, 390–1,417, 419, 421, 435, 451, 470, 473,477–9, 526, 529, 544, 555, 556, 583,674, 718, 744–5, 823, 891, 961,966(n.10), 970, 975, 980

literacy, 70, 87, 109, 127, 155, 156, 158,205, 291, 421, 975

recensions of, 219, 222, 277, 280see also Old Church Slavonic

Chybné slová, výrazy a väzby, ktorým treba vslovencine vyhýbat’ˇ (Incorrect Wordsand Phrases, Which Have to BeRemoved from the Slovak Language,1922, Trnava), 848

Cicero, Marcus Tullius, 959(n.16)Cienkowski, Witold, 430, 626Ciesielski, Stanisław, 371, 416, 599

1064 Index

Cieszyn/Tešín (Teschen), 118, 487, 502,577–8, 581–2, 584–5, 591, 727–30,732–4, 741, 764, 766, 770, 773, 775,824, 828, 836–837

Cirillo-Metodiada (Cyrilo-Methodiana,1835, Buda), 479, 534

citizenship, 24, 25–6, 36, 42, 43, 54, 190,254, 298, 584, 611, 612, 619, 633,634, 688, 690, 696, 709, 717, 729,733, 772, 774, 775, 780, 792, 829,863, 866, 871, 872, 959, 962, 964, 990

civic states/nations, 24, 25, 26, 496, 715,738, 740, 747, 781, 872

civil script, 160, 350, 356Clajus, Johannes (1535–1592), 79Clark, Charles Upson, 353class, middle, 39, 437, 446, 448, 508, 524,

598, 614, 961classification of languages, 984(n.2)classlessness, and languages, 954cleavages, religion-script/social status, 139,

338, 672, 751, 791, 907, 954Clement, St, 249Clementis, Vlado (1902–1952), 864, 865Cleveland Agreement (1915), 512, 513,

719, 817Cluj (Kolozsvar, Klausenburg), 123, 125,

439, 461, 677, 682, 694–5, 758, 937Clifford, James, 63Cobarrubias, Juan, 26codification, 10, 85–6, 94, 98, 101, 106–7,

133–5, 137, 138, 157, 165, 187, 207,209, 214, 223, 225, 229, 245, 251,252, 267, 275, 276, 283, 284, 286,287, 296, 333, 340, 351, 372, 373,379, 427, 439, 472, 512, 513, 516,533, 534–8, 542, 545–6, 551, 559–64,567, 607, 626, 642, 668, 674, 680,744, 757, 759, 760, 764, 777, 784,785, 801, 809, 812, 842–9, 859–61,872, 874, 876, 877–8, 881, 890–1, 898,899, 901, 906, 911, 918, 928, 934,951, 954, 957(n.7), 968, 980

Albanian, 48, 54, 57, 58, 67, 81, 217,224, 231, 234, 240, 241–8, 250, 254,258, 259, 262, 264, 324, 334, 359,361, 418, 697, 960–1, 966

Bohemian, Chancery, 76, 100–1, 132,304, 484, 488, 530–2, 535, 542, 807,906, 907, 915, 916

Bulgarian, 276, 283, 284, 286Church Slavonic and vernaculars, 351

Classical Greek, 81, 96, 97, 228,372, 383

Crimean Tatar, 272–275Croatian, 225Cyrillic, 70Czech, 107, 513, 516, 535, 759, 760, 784Esperanto, 340Estonian, 199German, 78Goralian, 951Grabar (Old Armenian), 141Greek, 259Latin, 94Latvian, 195Lithuanian, 189Macedonian, 251Magyar, 130, 286, 680Moldavian, 214Moravian, 801New Czech, 106Polish, 373, 379, 404, 427, 607, 626Pomakian, 287Romani, 872Romanian, 209Russian, 138, 350Rusyn, 890, 891Ruthenian, 176Serbian, 225Sieb’s ‘North German,’ 85Slavic languages, 295Slovak, 546, 560, 563, 842, 843,

845, 899Slovenian, 291, 296Ukrainian, 874Walachian, 207(West) Polesian language, 157

cohesion, 7, 25, 43Cold War, 2, 3, 4, 12, 23, 91, 315, 339,

570, 571, 622, 703, 937colonialism, 28, 41, 43, 59, 60, 86, 301,

733, 923, 961Comenius (see Komenský, Jan Amos)communism, 2–4, 12, 22, 30, 42, 52, 86,

91, 150, 173, 179, 190, 201, 210, 213,215, 286, 331–2, 339, 356, 359, 462,469, 471, 525, 528, 571, 625–31, 637,640, 643, 691–2, 699, 700, 704, 706,710, 711, 763, 776–8, 780, 784,786–7, 789, 796, 799, 805, 852, 863,864, 869–71, 875, 883, 902, 909,918–23, 927, 932, 935, 937–8, 941–4,

Index 1065

946, 948–50, 952, 953, 974,990, 992

Communist Party, Hungarian, 658community, 38Compendiosa Linguae Polonicae Institutio

(The Brief Grammar of the PolishLanguage, 1690, Gdansk), 109´

Complete Dictionary of Ancient and ModernHebrew, The, 309

Comrie, Bernard, 148, 164Condillac, Étienne de (1715–1780), 105Congress of Nationalities, 463Congress of the Rusyn Language, Second

(1999), 891, 892Congress of Vienna (1815), 17, 18, 108,

291, 302, 365, 380, 383–4, 450, 913Constantine (Cyril) and Methodius, 68,

87, 131, 252, 528Constantinople, 16, 80–1, 141ff, 150, 151,

158, 164, 205, 219–20, 242, 247, 249,254ff, 260, 266ff, 269, 277, 279ff,281ff, 318–19, 322, 324ff, 354, 594,964(n.3), 965, 970(n.2), 975(n.27),977(n.47) 978

see also IstanbulConstitution, 3 May, 368, 370, 371,

380, 594Constitution, of Independent Slovakia

(1992), 528Conversations-Lexikon (1853–1857), 407Cook, Michael, 113, 143Coptic, 67Corfu, 81, 223, 244Cornides, Daniel (1732–1787), 645Cornucopiæ, 95Cornwall, Mark, 757Cossack Wars, 114Coudenhove-Kalergi, Richard

(1894–1972), 571Council of Allied Ambassadors, 584Council of Europe, 316, 332, 630, 888, 892Counseil National des Pays Tchèques (The

National Council of the Czech Lands),557, 558, 813

Counseil national tchéco-slovaque(Czech-Slovak National Council), 813

Counter-Reformation, 89, 95, 103, 112,114, 123, 126, 128, 133, 135, 140, 155,156, 180, 181, 206, 220, 292, 341, 344,431, 486, 487, 532, 578, 807, 959, 980

Courland, 16, 75, 109, 113, 163, 187,193–4, 196, 198–9, 395–6, 408,974(n.21)

Courtenay, Jan Baudouin de (1845–1929),428, 429, 599

Courthiade, Marcel, 334, 978Couturat, Louis (1868–1914), 337Cox, John, 222, 437, 453Cracow, 18, 20, 69, 72, 80–1, 109–11, 113,

117–18, 122, 124, 146, 147, 151, 180,312, 373–7, 379–84, 389–90, 392,397–8, 400, 405–6, 414–18, 424,428–30, 482, 548, 588, 603–7, 611–12,614, 623–7, 638, 640, 642–3, 651, 659,702, 727, 758, 763, 799, 823, 907,914, 920, 929, 935, 973(n.18),975(n.29), 988(n.17)

Cracow, Free City of, 18, 379, 384, 389,390, 548, 907, 914, 923, 929

Crampton, R. J, 48, 70creoles, 28Crete, 256, 262Crimea, 58, 65, 209, 256, 271–5, 338, 362,

387, 873, 971, 977(n.39)Crimean War (1853–1856), 209, 387Croatia, 218, 219, 221, 443, 464Croatia-Slavonia, 50, 129, 432, 443, 456–7,

460, 464, 467, 483, 540, 553, 569,650, 652–4, 656, 657, 660–1, 663,667–70, 676–7, 717, 731, 742, 926

Croatianin Catholic Latin script, 144dialectal base of, 225, 546manuscripts, 219official recognition of, 106, 455, 491,

548, 892orthography, 227, 468

Croatian national movement, 236,237, 467

Croatian National Party, 444Croatian-Hungarian Party, 444Croato-Serbian, 225, 228, 230, 233,

341, 850see also Serbo-Croatian

Croato-Slavonia, 19, 50, 129, 432, 443,456ff, 464, 483, 640, 553, 569, 650,652ff, 662ff, 670ff, 717, 731, 742, 926

Croato-Slavonian, 225Croats, 217, 218, 974(n.26)Croucher, Murlin, 489, 491, 493, 495, 725,

756, 768, 771, 784, 842, 861, 883Crowe, David M, 205, 216, 334

1066 Index

Crowley, Tony, 1, 11, 62, 988Crystal, David, 35, 958Csáky, Moritz, 645Csángós, 673, 674Csere, János Apáczai (1625–1659), 128Csury, Bálint, 681cultural revolution, Albanian (1966–1969),

245Culture Centre of Latgalia, 194, 196, 200culture, Czech/Slovak, 72, 79, 83, 85,

109, 113, 114, 117, 118, 119, 121, 125,126, 131, 136, 141, 149, 152, 162, 163,170, 171, 175, 183, 184, 187, 196, 197,200, 201, 207, 209, 211, 213, 214, 233,238, 240, 242, 245, 247, 248, 266, 278,291, 309, 310, 312, 314, 315, 316, 318,329, 324, 326, 346, 353, 355, 359, 362,376, 377, 382, 385, 386, 387, 389, 393,394, 395, 397, 399, 402, 403, 410, 414,415, 426, 431, 441, 465, 466, 469, 470,501, 503, 506, 508, 514, 517, 520, 528,529, 544, 549, 553, 554, 560, 561, 562,575, 586, 599, 603, 606, 609, 615, 630,631, 632, 643, 644, 645, 663, 670, 672,681, 688, 695, 698, 702, 708, 711, 712,713, 722, 723, 725, 737, 747, 748, 754,758, 760, 770, 793, 795, 797, 798, 799,800, 803, 805, 817, 822, 823, 825, 833,834, 839, 858, 861, 864, 868, 876, 877,879, 887, 891, 896, 897. 905, 915, 919,923, 926, 928, 929, 930, 935, 941, 946,950, 952, 954, 960, 965, 967, 971, 989

Cum Primum (On Civil Disobedience), 386Cumania, 672Curta, Florian, 67Cuza, Alexandru Ioan (1820–1873), 209Cyganski, Mirosław, 306Cyprus, 23, 57, 256, 263, 269, 361, 363,

977, 989Cyril (Constantine) and Methodius, 68, 87,

131, 252, 480, 501, 526, 527, 528,824, 887

Cyrillic script, 69, 119, 144, 159, 170,173, 207, 219, 225, 228, 274, 276,314, 350, 353, 358, 390, 529, 602 theBalkans, 1, 5, 10, 13, 16, 18, 34, 37,48, 64, 65, 71, 81, 87, 92, 93, 113,125, 126, 137, 140–4, 147–8, 150–1,158, 202–3, 205, 211, 216, 223, 236,241, 245, 246–9, 254, 256, 258, 259,262, 264, 265, 277, 278, 282, 286,301, 307, 317, 319, 320–2, 327–9, 332,

338, 354, 355, 361, 362–3, 404, 452,457, 458, 468, 807, 820, 842, 887,926, 966, 975, 978

vernaculars, use of, 6, 7, 8, 33, 35, 39,40, 47, 81, 87, 89, 90, 94, 95, 95, 96,97, 103, 104, 106, 114, 112, 126,128, 129, 139, 140, 141, 146, 157,165, 184, 191, 192, 198, 220, 222,260, 273, 277, 323, 345, 351, 354,419, 420, 465, 473, 478, 524, 528,530, 532, 589, 648, 718, 968

see also individual languagesCzambel, Samo (1856–1910), 520, 527,

563, 567, 757, 842, 844Czaplinski, Władysław, 379, 384, 388,

398, 406, 416, 586Czartoryski, Adam Prince (1770–1861),

116, 376, 378Czech, 105, 106, 107, 518

Chancery, 81, 101, 102, 106, 107, 109,113, 123, 124, 135, 138, 477, 488,490, 491, 505, 506

decline of, 74, 80, 98, 114, 200, 258,263, 279, 327, 354, 602, 756

development of, 18, 25, 38, 119, 123,127, 136, 137, 159, 175, 177–8, 184,185, 187, 192, 196, 201, 219, 237,248, 302, 309, 325, 353, 372, 376,381, 392, 393, 397, 398, 420, 421,439, 459, 460, 464, 479, 471, 487,491, 494, 502, 510, 511, 513, 514,527, 534, 547, 559, 560, 561, 566,596, 604, 632, 708, 711, 713, 715,719, 730, 734, 760, 768, 787, 791,798, 801, 810, 814, 833, 839, 843,845, 846, 864, 868, 873, 876, 902,903, 908, 911, 913, 918, 919, 922,930, 956, 970

dialects, 506, 517dominance over Slovak, 787education, 491Jesuit, 103, 135, 532lexicography, 101, 515linguistic loans in, 259, 304, 325, 475,

515, 516, 799literary language, 493official language, 491, 743, 769, 777,

795, 902orthography, 100, 136, 185, 225, 422–3,

425, 516, 760purifying, 48, 96, 261, 282, 297, 515,

759, 881

Index 1067

standard, 102, 107, 122, 425, 467, 494,505, 533, 537, 541, 546, 642, 741,744, 759, 760, 766, 807, 843,848, 960

written, 99, 100, 103, 134, 422, 493,506, 517, 533, 625, 642, 758, 760,784, 758, 800, 841, 844

CzechConstitution (1992), 528, 790, 791, 792,

853, 886Crown, Lands of, 15, 16, 73, 101–3, 106,

107, 110, 113, 117, 118, 123, 128,132, 137, 145, 290, 391, 417, 463,476, 477, 482–4, 487–8, 490, 496–8,500–1, 503–4, 506–8, 512, 517, 523,525, 530, 539, 577, 717, 721, 729,730, 773, 791, 806–7, 885, 910, 915,918, 927

culture, 514, 520, 554, 770, 817, 923Germans, 831lands, 715, 788mass media, 867Republic, 2, 3, 12–15, 22–3, 31, 34, 36,

54, 57, 138, 158, 214, 332, 333, 348,462, 482, 485–6, 506, 565, 630, 642,709, 710, 712, 713, 788, 789, 790–5,799, 801, 870, 872, 875, 885, 886,887–8, 892, 894, 896–8, 901–2, 919,949–52, 958, 978

Czech Academy of Sciences and Art, 566,760, 761, 762, 769, 785, 833

Czechization, of names, 508, 516, 554,559, 728, 796, 826, 828, 834, 835,841, 842, 845, 933

Czech National Council, 719, 862, 865Czech national movement, 425, 470, 479,

498, 499, 502, 510, 511, 514, 515,517, 547, 553, 560, 727, 807, 810,906, 913, 960

Cžechoreˇˇ cnostˇ ,t seu Grammatica linguaeBohemicae (The Grammar of theBohemian Language, 1672,Prague), 103

Czechoslovak, 51–2, 133, 135, 138, 140,303, 340–1, 368, 417, 463, 464, 478,481, 489, 511, 513, 514, 517, 518, 519–21,525–7, 529, 530–1, 533, 537–40, 542,545, 548, 554, 557, 558–62, 564, 565,567, 582, 583, 584, 585, 596, 606,627, 647, 657–9, 667–8, 670, 671, 674,676, 686, 690, 697, 714–15, 717–22,724–41, 743, 746–54, 756–7, 760,

763–4, 766. 767, 768, 769, 770, 771–6,780, 785–7, 789, 791, 794, 795–6, 803,804, 805, 808, 809, 810–14, 816–18,823, 825–50, 852, 854, 857–9, 861,862, 863–7, 869–84, 889, 891, 897,897, 902, 911, 913, 915–16, 918, 923,928, 931, 933, 934, 935, 939, 941,944, 945, 951, 952, 983, 984, 987,989, 992

decline of, 74, 80, 98, 114, 200, 258,263, 279, 327, 354, 602, 756

history of, 519–20official language, 51, 518, 743, 746

Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences, 762,780, 785, 795, 878, 882

Czecho-Slovak cooperation, 554, 812, 847Czecho-Slovak Council, 721Czech/Slovak, equality of, 779, 784, 797,

864, 867, 881, 897Czechoslovak-Hungarian war

(1918–1919), 734Czecho-Slovakia, 20, 482, 512, 513, 525,

558, 559, 566, 571, 610, 657, 665, 686,720, 721, 722, 723, 725, 750, 753, 754,765, 767, 770, 771, 788–92, 794, 795,801, 827, 834, 837, 854, 865, 883,884–7, 890, 896, 898, 925, 928, 948

Czechoslovakia, 485, 486, 565, 8173 state nations of, 714communist, 777Constitution (1920), 518, 564, 817, 842,

843, 848, 850economy of, 110, 562, 655. 714, 733,

734, 758, 767, 788, 832, 843, 864,867, 897, 928

education, 749ethnic composition, 739, 740federalization of, 771, 777Five (petka), the, 748ˇindependent, 411, 513, 721, 725industrialization, 784inequalities, 755interwar, 753–4, 839minorities, national, 748, 781name change, 725, 765nation-state, 513, 518, 928postwar, 773, 780–2re-established, 775religion, 783territorial changes, 726–7, 730, 733–4,

738, 764–5, 766–7, 774

1068 Index

Czechoslovakism, 463, 479, 514, 518, 518,530, 537, 538, 541, 550, 554, 556,557, 562, 563, 566–7, 722, 730, 751–2,757, 777, 791, 795, 810–13, 815, 820,827, 835, 839, 844, 846, 847, 867,876, 878, 879, 911, 913, 918, 933,935, 941, 942–3, 945, 984, 990, 992

Czechoslovakization, 747, 748Czechoslovak league, 720Czechoslovak lexicological and

lexicographical conference, 764Czechoslovak movement, 464, 511, 529Czechoslovak National Assembly, 828, 865Czechoslovak National Committee, 771Czechoslovak National Council, 813Czechoslovak National Front, 858Czechoslovak nation-state, 138, 558,

845, 933Czechoslovak Socialist Republic, 714, 776Czechoslovak-Polish War (1919), 824Czechoslovak-Soviet agreement (1945),

690, 771, 772Czechoslovak-Soviet agreement on

friendship and cooperation (1943), 771Czechoslovak-Soviet Institute, 879Czech Socialist Republic, 485, 777,

866, 941Czechs, Old, 507, 508, 509, 513Czechs, Young, 508, 509, 513, 719Czesak, Artur, 639Czuczor, Gergely Istaván (1800–1866),

130, 442, 460–1, 515, 680–1, 703, 909,913, 917, 932

Dabrowska, Anna, 705, 947Dacia, 63, 64, 201–2, 207, 212, 217, 452,

958(n.10)Daco-Romanian, see RomanianDaco-Slavonic, 205Dal, Vasilii Ivanovich (1801–1872), 162Dalmatia, 16–17, 21, 64, 66, 69, 92–3, 121,

146–7, 218–19, 221, 222, 225, 227,236, 238–9, 289, 291, 293, 443, 454,457, 460, 467, 469, 488, 657, 662–3,717, 976(n.32)

Dalmatian, 202, 220–1Dalmatin, Jurij (1547–1589), 292–3Damborský, Ján (1880–1932), 567,

844, 848Damm, Krystyna, 64, 65, 275, 287, 299,

334, 674, 966Daneš, František, 780, 783, 785, 796, 801

Danicic, Djura (1825–1882), 227, 228Danish, 40, 57, 76, 82, 183, 197, 345, 421,

898, 962, 963Dante, Alghieri (1265–1320), 45, 94, 106,

111, 419, 648, 980(n.7)Danube, 16, 63–4, 66–7, 87, 121, 202–3,

247, 249, 432, 444, 447, 473, 474, 529,658, 711, 965(n.5), 967(n.11), 982(n.1)

Danylenko, Andrii, 157, 192Danzig (Gdansk), 19, 20, 21, 72, 75, 80,

88, 344, 366, 379, 413, 577, 578, 609,612, 923, 925, 929, 987

Danzig, Free City of, 19ff, 366, 413, 577,609, 923, 929

Darasz, Zdzisław, 299Darwin, Charles (1809–1882), 65Daukantas, Simonas (1793–1864), 185Davies, Norman, 71, 72, 376, 388, 398,

602, 603, 613–15, 619, 980Dayton Agreement (Dayton Peace

Accords, 1995), 22Dayton Peace Accords (Dayton

Agreement, 1995), 232de Bray, Reginald George Arthur, 528de Courtenay, Jan Baudouin (1845–1929),

428–9, 599de Rivarol, Antoine (1753–1801), 45de Rubertis, Giovanni (1813–1889), 238Deák, István, 457, 461, 462, 553, 654, 656,

661, 667, 690, 693Deák, Ladislav, 461, 553, 656, 661, 667,

690, 693, 766, 839, 989Debołecki, Wojciech (1585–1646), 480Debrecen (Debreczin), 122, 128, 133, 461,

658, 677, 685, 689, 821Dedes, George, 246, 263Deditskii, Bogdan A, 357Defoe, Daniel (1660–1731), 83DeFrancis, John, 150Dejiny Moravyˇ (History of Moravia), 479Dejiny národu ceskéhoˇ , 503Dejiny národu ceského wˇ Cechách a na

Morawe (History of the Czech Nation,1848–1876, Prague), 479

Dejiny Slovenska a Slovákov (History ofSlovakia and the Slovaks), 132

Dejiny slovenské literaturyˇ (History ofSlovak Literature, 1950, Prague), 520

Dejna, Karol (1911–2004), 626Delegation for the Adoption of an

International Auxiliary Language, 337Dell’Agata, Giuseppe, 279

Index 1069

Dembinski, Henryk (1791–1864), 455´Deme, Lászl, 703, 704democracy, abandonment of, 925demonstrations, anti-communist, 622de-Polonization, 187, 395

see also PolonizationDeputacja Ortograficzna (Orthography

Commission), 381Deszkiewicz, Jan Nepomucen, 367Détruisez la Tchécoslovaquie fief du

bolchevisme. Détruisez ce monstretchéco-slovaco-germano- -houngaro-ruthéno-polonais- (DestroyCzechoslovakia, a Fief of Bolshevism:Destroy the Czecho-Slovako-Germano-Hungaro-Rutheno-Polishmonster, 1936, Paris), 821

Detvan (poem), 547, 810, 811Deutsch-böhmisches Wörterbuch, 494Deutsche Bühnenaussprache (German Stage

Pronunciation), 85Deutsche Partei (German Party), 856Deutscher Sprachatlas (Dialectal Atlas of the

German Language), 405di Colloredo, Ermes (1622–1692), 300dialect continuums, 33–4, 64, 72, 304,

958(n.15)985dialectology, German, 405, 517, 519, 956dialects, 25, 29, 959(n.22)

Chinese, 33Dutch, 33German, 33, 48, 75, 77, 78, 80, 83–4,

397, 405, 406, 967, 986Latin, 93–4Low German, 33, 80, 83–4, 967, 986Magyar, 34, 72, 124, 128, 461, 517, 681,

705, 947Polish, 34, 350, 394, 405, 461, 517, 606,

626, 917Slavic, 28, 34, 35, 68, 101, 112, 113,

154, 158, 174, 187, 229, 252, 287,288, 293, 299, 304, 481, 484, 506,524, 567, 578, 582, 728, 875, 911,930, 958, 984, 985

Slovak, 132, 135, 450, 512, 522,527, 531, 540, 544–6, 744, 780, 822,872, 899, 985

diasporaArmenian, 320, 323Polish, 609Roma, 327Rusyn, 471

Slovak, 860, 875, 991dictionaries of specific languages, see

separate ‘index of dictionaries’dictionaries, compilation of, 10–11, 46Dictionarium Latinohungaricum (The

Latin-Magyar Dictionary, 1604), 122Dictionarul limbii române literare¸

contemporane (The Dictionary of theContemporary Literary RomanianLanguage, 1955–1957, Bucharest), 625

Dictionary of Four Languages, 247, 248Dictionnaire de l’Académie française

(Dictionary of the French Academy [ofSciences]), 161

Die statistische Bedeutung der Volksprache alsKennzeichen der Nationalität (TheStatistical Significance of the People’sSpeech as the Indicator of TheirNationality), 49

differences, linguistic, ethnic, regional, 5Differenciálny slovensko-ruský slovník s

troma prílohami a Skrátena mluvnicatˇtslovenského jazyka s krátkym úvodom(The Slovak-Russian Dictionary ofWords That Are Different in BothLanguages with Three Appendixesand a Brief Grammar of the SlovakLanguage, 1900, Turciansky SvätýˇMartin), 847

digraphs/trigraphs/multigraphs, 99Dimitrovski, Todor, 255Dinekov, Petr, 279Discours sur l’universalité de la langue

française (A Treatise on theUniversality of the FrenchLanguage), 45

Dmowski, Roman (1864–1939), 31, 412,413, 416, 576, 577, 587, 589, 617

Dnieper, 163, 165, 388, 411–13, 585, 589,614, 980(n.8)

Dniester, 18, 21, 55, 63, 208, 212–13,977(n.40), 980(n.8)

Dobrijevic, Irinej, 360´Dobrovský, Josef (Dobrowsky, Joseph)

(1753–1829), 107, 108, 134, 224, 294,373, 378, 437, 477, 479, 489–4, 513,516, 519, 521, 531, 535–7, 760, 966

Dobruja, 64, 126, 211, 213, 269, 272, 275,694, 937

Dodatky (Supplement) to Ottu v slovníkt ˚tnaucnýˇ , 514, 761, 763

Dodocanese Islands, 262

1070 Index

Doležálek, Jirí, 792Donat, the, 95Donatus’s Latin grammer, 95Donev, Dony K, 285Doroszewski, Witold (1899–1976), 606,

624, 625–6, 628, 640, 641, 643,796, 943

Dorul’a, Ján, 562Dr Esperanto, 336

see also Zamenhof, L LDralle, Lothar, 439Draškovic, Janko (1770–1856), 443Drava, 67, 236, 297, 467Drava Banovina, 297Dresden, 76, 377Drews, Robert, 263, 976Dreyfus affair (1894), 403Drsatova, Marta, 124Druckersprachen (printers’ languages),

79, 80see also printers’ languages

Drucki-Podbereski, B, 173, 602du Bellay, Joachim (1522–1560), 45Du Cange, Charles Dufresne

(1610–1688), 96Dual Empire, 211, 460, 510, 555, 667

see also Austria-HungaryDual Monarchy of the Austrian Empire

and the Kingdom of Hungary (1867),19, 569

see also Austria-HungaryDubcek, Alexander (1921–1992), 777,

865, 883Dubisz, Stanisław, 641Duchy of Franconia, 77Duchy of Saxony, 76Duchy of Warsaw (1807), 17, 373, 376–7,

378, 907, 913Duden, Konrad (1829–1911), 85Duden Wörterbuch, 85Dudík, Beda Franziskus (1815–1890),

479, 480Dukanovic, Milo, 234Dukhnovych, Aleksander (1803–1865),

744Dulichenko, Aleksandr D., 134, 177, 192,

225, 240, 255, 279, 287, 299, 301,306, 348, 357, 392, 472, 531, 535,748, 768, 780, 801, 823, 875, 892, 985

Duma (Russian parliament), 56, 268,274, 398

Dunham, Vera S, 725

Dunin-Marcinkiewicz, W (1807–1884),172

Dürer, Albrecht (1471–1528), 343Durica, Milan S, 131, 132, 842Durovic, L’ubomír, 133, 135, 450, 531,

535, 551, 562, 567Dutch, 27, 33, 40, 59, 60, 74–5, 78, 113,

260, 312, 329, 344, 421, 472, 520,963, 967, 976, 988

Dúverná zmluva medzi mníchom a diablom(The Secret Contract between theMonk and the Devil, 1789,Tyrnau [Trnava]), 533

Dvina, 197DVL (Deutsche Volksliste), 611, 612,

618–19Dvornik, Francis, 12Dyer, Donald L, 209, 214Dzhukeski, Alexandar, 255Dzurinda, Mikuláš, 888, 894, 895

Ealhwine Albinus of York, 94East Slovak (Slovjak) People’s Republic,

466, 467, 657, 820, 822, 872Eastern front, 585, 857Eberhard, Winfried, 12, 36–7, 52, 190,

192, 213, 215, 255, 285, 388, 613,614, 638, 656, 661, 662, 663, 669,672, 675, 691, 696, 725, 730, 740,766, 775, 783, 829, 832, 869, 872

Eberhardt, Piotr, 36, 37, 52, 190, 192, 213,215, 255, 285, 388, 613–14, 638, 656,661–3, 669, 672, 675, 691, 696, 725,730, 740, 766, 775, 783, 829, 832,869, 872

Eck, John (1486–1543), 82Eckert, Eva, 507, 759Eco, Umberto, 473economic development, 39, 487, 602, 723,

798, 801, 843, 949Édes anyanyelvünk (Our Beloved Mother

Tongue), 704Edirne (Adrianopolis), 81, 330, 451education, 8, 9, 89, 97

Bulgarian, 279, 280, 282Czech, 492, 503, 507, 508, 755, 769Czech-Germans, 832Czechoslovakia, 724, 749, 782, 783Esperanto, 337, 338Estonia, 199–200Gagauz, 270Galicia, 390, 391, 401

Index 1071

gubernias, Baltic, 396Helleno-Bulgarian, 279Hungary, 434, 684–5, 699, 712, 742Ladino, 318, 319Lithuanian schools, 188Magyar, 447, 463, 676–7, 696, 697, 890Poland, 387, 604, 612, 620, 635, 896Poland-Lithuania, 370, 392, 630Romani, 331, 333Ruthenian, 747, 874, 875Samogitia, 396Serbia, 223Slovak, 549, 554–5, 810, 836, 840Slovenian, 295, 296Sorbian, 305, 306Tatar, 274Walachia/Moldavia, 206

Edwards, John, 42, 440Egger, Carolus, 98Egyetemes Magyar enciklopédia (The

Universal Magyar Encyclopedia,1859–1876, Eger), 461, 712, 917

Eisler, Rudolf, 46Ekavian, 225–6, 229–34, 239, 240,

975(n.28), 975(n.29)see also (I)jekavian, Serbo-Croatian,

Serbianelastic stability, 517Elbe, 63, 87, 290, 301–2, 977(n.42)Eliáš, Alois (1890–1942), 770Elisa-Bursac, Ellen, 235´elites, 7, 9, 60, 71, 91, 96, 103, 126, 150,

166, 215, 217, 394, 400, 419, 436,437, 440, 446, 452, 458, 465, 489,505, 524, 543, 576, 621, 757, 804,807, 877, 891, 938, 954

Bohemian, 906Czech/Slovak, 525, 757, 775, 814, 841new, 954Ottoman, 265Polish, elimination of, 613Roma, 330Roman, 92

Elle, Ludwig, 306Enciklopedio de Esperanto, La (Encyclopedia

of Esperanto, 1933–1934, Budapest),339–40

Encyclopaedia Beliana (The BelianaEncyclopedia, 2001–, Bratislava), 712,797, 850, 900, 950

encyclopedia, development of, 11, 90, 100,128, 332, 334, 339, 406–8, 426, 461,

462, 499, 514–15, 605, 627, 640, 641,682, 705, 712, 758, 761, 786–7, 796,797, 849, 850, 879, 883, 900, 917–18,932–4, 944, 945, 950, 981, 988, 990

Catholic, 461, 641, 712, 950, 988(n.17)Catholic, Magyar, 128, 461, 705, 944, 950Czech, 407, 514, 786, 917, 950Czechoslovak, 627, 786, 944Hungarian, 128Magyar, 128, 461, 705, 917, 944Polish, 406, 407, 426, 605, 932, 944,

950, 981Slovak, 514, 627, 786, 849, 850, 950

encyclopedias, and politics, 406Encyklopädie der philosophischen

Wissenschaften im Grundrisse (1817,Encyclopedia of the PhilosophicalSciences in Outline [1959]), 499

Encyklopedia Gazety Wyborczej(Encyclopedia of Gazeta Wyborcza,2005, Warsaw), 641

Encyklopedia katolicka (The CatholicEncyclopedia, 1973–, Lublin), 641,712, 950

Encyklopedia popularna (The PopularEncyclopedia, 1982, Warsaw), 627

Encyklopedia powszechna Ultima Thule(Universal Encyclopedia Ultima Thule,1927–1939, Warsaw), 605, 932

Encyklopédia Slovenska (Encyclopedia ofSlovakia, 1977–1982, Bratislava), 883

Encyklopedya Polska (Polish Encyclopedia,1915, Cracow), 406

Encyklopedyja Powszechna (UniversalEncyclopedia, 1859–1868, Warsaw),407, 426, 605, 917

Endlösung, 331, 770, 831, 855,977–8(n.49)

see also Holocaust, theEndzelınis, J¯ anis (1873–1961), 194¯Eneida, 171, 175Eneida navyvrat (Aeneid Inside Out(( ), 171tEngels, Friedrich (1820–1859), 500England, as first nation-state, 7, 31, 40, 75,

80, 90, 94, 98, 145, 307, 311, 342,344, 445, 447, 805, 959(n.18), 987

English, 40, 41, 86, 91, 235, 240Basic, 978(n.53), 979domination of, 12, 13, 45, 83, 101, 131,

138, 151, 187, 194, 205, 223, 254,344, 391, 394, 402, 442, 472, 483,506, 508, 520, 593, 604, 625, 648,

1072 Index

English – continued649, 659, 663, 701, 746, 756, 757,767, 777, 778, 820, 826, 827, 835,836, 863, 865, 878, 902, 941, 971

as first global language, 338, 339in Hungary, 702orthography, 316, 420in Poland, 631

Enlightenment, absolutist, 434Enlightenment, the, 574Entente, the, 406, 652, 657, 658, 659, 660Eðhvardðhsson, Ingi Rúnar, 345, 346eparchies, 386Epirus, 242, 246–7, 256–7, 319Erasmus, Desiderius (1466–1536), 95, 122Erkanian, V. S, 327Ertl, Václav (1875–1929), 516, 565, 760,

844, 845, 848Esperanto, 82, 311, 335–40, 978, 979Esposito, John L, 269, 275Essai sur l’origine des connaissances

humaines (Essay on the Origin ofHuman Understanding, 1746), 44, 105

Essay Concerning Human Understanding,ggAn, 44

Esterházy, János (1901–1957), 675, 753,774, 855

Estland, 193, 194, 197, 199, 395, 974Estonia, 3, 13, 15, 16, 19, 20, 21, 23, 37,

51, 52, 54, 57, 58, 66, 74, 88, 115, 163,189, 190, 193, 196, 197, 199, 200, 201,344, 347, 358, 362, 411, 421, 611,614, 616, 630, 789, 923, 936, 972, 977

Estonian, 50, 54, 61, 65, 66, 76, 81, 119,139, 146, 163, 181, 189, 190, 192,193, 194, 197, 198, 199, 200, 201,282, 290, 344, 346–8, 358, 395, 396,397, 411, 421, 914, 916, 935, 946,968, 971, 972, 974, 977

Estonian national movement, 198Estraikh, Gennady, 316, 596ethnic boundaries, 7, 29, 37, 120, 168,

251, 331, 581, 756ethnic cleansing, 37, 60, 108, 258, 283,

284, 327, 403, 571, 584, 606, 607,609, 641, 644, 702, 893

Armenian, 327Jews, 403, 617, 619Muslims, 258, 283

ethnic groups, 14, 46, 63, 93, 216, 239,240, 275, 295, 306, 328, 340, 453, 581,

639, 662, 663, 672, 681, 707, 805, 930,940, 946, 956, 960, 965, 967, 976, 988

ethnic marker, language as, 10ethnic states/nations, 24, 25, 54, 574, 575,

916, 956, 959, 962, 982ethnic/national minorities, 26ethnolects, 37ethnolinguistic

homogenization, 6, 9, 36, 48, 150, 283,341, 410, 628, 644, 677, 678, 695,699, 852, 893, 926, 931, 938, 938,939, 941, 949, 952, 953, 979, 980

independence, 11, 54, 400, 657, 922nationalism, 30nation-states, 6, 962(n.46)

Etwas über die Magyarizierung der Slawen inUngarn (1821, On Magyarization ofthe Slavs in Hungary), 449

Etymologický slovnik jazyka ceského aslovenského (Etymological Dictionaryof the Czech and Slovak Language,1957, Prague), 763, 878

Etymologický slovnik jazyka ceského(Etymological Dictionary of the CzechLanguage, Prague), 627, 763, 785, 786,796, 878, 881

Etymologiczny słownik jezyka polskiego (TheEtymological Dictionary of the PolishLanguage, Warsaw), 643

Etymologisches Wörterbuch des Ungarischen,705, 945

Europäische Nation, Die (The EuropeanNation), 571

Europe, Northern, 13, 194, 342, 958European Bureau for Lesser Used

Languages (EBLUL), 639European Union, 3, 13, 23, 91, 200, 253,

254, 262, 263, 269, 285, 298, 362,571, 628, 630, 631, 644, 707, 709,710, 713, 789, 790, 798, 799, 801,888, 894, 895, 902, 949, 950, 964, 975

1991 enlargement, 222004 enlargement, 13, 23, 91, 200,

571, 902

Fábián, Pál, 704Fac, Bolesław, 86Facciolati, Jacopo (1682–1769), 96Fándly, Juraj (1750–1811), 529, 533, 814‘fathers of nation’, 31‘fathers of the Italian Nation’, 95Faulmann, Carl, 211, 246, 748, 966, 968

Index 1073

Fellman, Jack, 308, 311Felvidék, 646, 647, 768, 854, 856–8Ferdinand I, Emperor (r.1835–1848), 389,

445, 484Ferenc II Rákóczi (1676–1735), 432–433Ferko, Jergu, 892Ferko, Milan, 528Fichte, Johann Gottlieb (1762–1814), 30,

46, 62Ficko, Josef (1772–1843), 237Ficowski, Jerzy, 334Filipec, Josef (1915–2001), 785, 796Finger, Zuzana, 872Finnish, 41, 50, 57, 65, 66, 76, 81, 82,

163, 181, 199, 201, 290, 334, 346,421, 475, 669, 946, 968, 971, 972, 974

Finno-Ugric, 61, 65, 66, 181, 192, 193,198, 201, 218, 290, 475, 476, 646, 681,687, 702, 705, 946, 947, 967, 971, 972

finnugor népek és nyelvek ismertetése,A (Description of the Finno-UgricPeoples and Languages, 1922,Budapest), 681

Fischer-Galati, Stephen, 672, 696Fišer, Rudolf, 658, 722, 740, 759, 766, 775Fishman, Joshua, 26, 316, 403, 431, 481Five (petka, interwar Czechoslovakia), the,ˇ

167, 341, 470, 489, 515, 530, 538,563, 566, 567, 690, 724, 740, 743,748, 749, 753, 754, 756, 758, 759,762, 768, 770, 784, 785, 786, 791,795, 799, 804, 812, 820, 828, 833,839, 841, 857, 861, 872, 876, 878,887, 889, 892, 898, 913, 926, 927, 933

Flajšhans, Václav (1866–1950), 520, 521,523, 531

Flemish, 74, 77, 82, 884, 963Florinskii, Timofiei Dmitrevich

(1854–1919), 527Fodor, István, 442, 462, 683, 705, 982Fogarasi, János (1801–1878), 130, 442,

680, 909, 932Fojtíková, Eva, 70, 160, 162, 171Forcellini, Egidio (1688–1768), 96Forgács, Tamás, 130, 439, 440, 445, 462,

464, 683, 705, 711Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia

(FYROM), 253see also Macedonia

Forverts (newspaper), 316Fotinov, Konstantin (1790–1858),

280, 283

fourteen points speech, 576, 922Fox, Jonathan, 710Fraktur script, 343franciaországi változásokra, A (On the

Changes in France, 1792), 439Francique, 77Francis I, Emperor, Austria (r.1792–1835),

17, 103, 383, 484see also Francis II

Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor(r. 1792–1835), 17, 104

see also Francis IFrancis Joseph (r. 1848–1916, Emperor of

Austria; r. 1867–1916, King ofHungary), 455–7, 474, 484, 508,517, 549, 557, 566, 761, 762, 832,982(n.2), 990

Francis Joseph Czech Academy ofSciences, Literature and Art, 508, 517,761, 762, 832, 990

see also Czech Academy of Sciencesand Art

Franconia, 77Frankish, 14, 67, 68, 71, 74, 87, 88, 94,

175, 218, 288, 301, 448, 479, 482,646, 674, 751, 805, 977

Frankish Empire (800), 94, 67, 71, 87, 94,218, 751, 805

see also Carolingian EmpireFrankish Kingdom, 14, 68, 74, 87, 288,

301, 448, 674, 977(n.42)Franks, 14, 77, 93, 203, 258, 480, 967(n.16)Franolic, Branko, 68, 69, 152´Fras, Zbigniew, 384, 392, 403Fraser, Angus, 335Free City of Cracow see Cracow, Free

City ofFree City of Danzig (Gdansk)´ see Danzig,

Free City ofFreiwillige Schutzstaffel, 856French Revolution (1789), 5, 8, 24, 31, 42,

129, 223, 368, 433, 435, 439, 484,487, 496, 805, 919, 979, 980

French, 40, 41, 42, 74, 86ascendancy of, 90decline of, 91as language of science, 45as international language, 86, 338as sociolect of nobility in Central

Europe, 597, 598Frenzel, Konrad, 923Friedman, Mikul (1912–2006), 30, 566

1074 Index

Friedrich Augustus, King of Saxony(r.1807–1813, as monarch of theDuchy of Warsaw), 377

Friedrich, Karen, 12, 30, 45, 46, 73, 103,113, 184, 199, 377, 379, 406, 435,499, 500, 507, 730, 971, 986

Friedrich Wilhelm III, King of Prussia(r.1797–1840), 379

Frisian, 75, 988Friulian, 300, 301, 969Frucht, Richard, 209, 222, 231, 233, 246,

255, 263, 279, 285Frýdecký, František (1891–1943), 780,

847, 848

Gagauz, 23, 82, 264, 269, 270, 361, 362Gagauzes, 269–70Gagauz nationalism, 270Gagauz Yeri, 23, 270Gagova, Krasimira, 160, 997Gaj, Ljudevit (1809–1872), 225, 237, 295,

443, 444, 545Gajda, Stanisław, 384, 626, 631, 633Gajdoš, Marián, 823, 875, 990Galicia, 18, 19, 35, 50, 116, 137, 141–2,

145, 146, 147, 166–70, 175–9, 271,309, 313, 323, 355, 357, 375, 383,384, 389, 390, 392, 394, 398–403, 405,408, 410, 411, 413–15, 417, 426, 428,429, 444, 453, 457, 507, 510, 512,548–9, 569, 574, 576, 577, 583, 585,588–90, 593, 595–7, 599, 600, 602,604, 608, 611, 613–14, 649–51, 667,735, 745, 767, 901, 908, 912, 914,929–30, 935, 936, 970(n.30), 971(n.5)

Galician (Spain), 18, 35, 167, 176, 177,178, 317, 318, 361, 391, 392, 400,402, 428, 429, 463, 470, 502, 548,581, 583, 589, 735, 736, 746–7, 757,823, 825, 874, 912, 928, 988

Galician Jacquerie (1846), 18Galician Poles, 391, 463, 548, 912Galustian, Dzh O, 327Garašanin, Ilija (1812–1874), 224, 453Gartner, Fedir (1843–1925), 177Gašparíková, Želmíra, 136, 565, 780,

882, 944Gasprinskii, Ismail Bey, 273Gaster, M, 208, 211Gautsch, Paul (1851–1918), 509Gawrecká, Marie, 730

Gazeta de Transilvania (TransylvanianNewspaper, 1848), 452

Gdansk (Danzig), 19, 20–1, 72, 75, 80, 88,344, 366, 379, 413, 577–8, 609, 612,923, 925, 929, 987(n.5)

see also Danzig (Gdansk)Geary, Patrick J, 105Gebauer, Jan (1838–1907), 516, 520, 527,

627, 759, 760, 844, 917, 933Gelenius, Sigmund (1495–1554), 101Geller, Ewa, 71, 79, 316, 320Gellner, Ernest (1925–1995), 38, 44, 149,

575, 962Gemeinschaft, 38, 43Generalgouvernement, 20, 611–12,

614–15, 620, 624, 688, 767, 769, 824,855, 902, 935

gender and national literature, 546, 731,918, 991

genocide, 11, 323, 326, 333, 570, 870Georgian, 41, 67, 69, 160, 213, 258, 264,

322–3, 326, 328, 358, 363, 419,962(n.37)

German, 40, 45, 56, 86Chancery, 72, 73, 75, 76, 78, 99, 102,

103, 110, 136, 292, 530, 915, 927Common, 75, 76, 79, 83, 123, 725in Czech lands, 743decline of, 91dialectology, 405dialects, 75, 85as language of scholarly

instruction/research, 161Low, 27, 28, 33, 37, 38, 40, 74, 75, 77,

79, 80, 83, 84, 85, 95, 128, 146, 161,175, 181, 224, 447, 638, 701, 709,724, 734, 805, 869, 873, 895, 965,967, 984, 98

as official language, 767, 769in Poland, 593in Russia, 163Standard, 33, 48, 75, 76, 77, 78, 80, 83,

84, 85, 123, 313, 440, 927, 953,968(n.20)

German-Austrian National Assembly, 726German-Austrian National Council, 721German colonial empire, 86German Confederation (1815), 4, 18, 108,

145, 296, 365, 389, 453, 477, 483,497, 716, 910, 983

German Customs Union, (1834), 18, 365

Index 1075

German Empire (1871), xx, 2, 18, 19, 48,56, 83–4, 86, 183–4, 302–4, 308, 348,349, 365–6, 378, 392, 399–400, 404–5,410–11, 415, 453, 509, 569–70, 574,579, 581–2, 600, 602, 664, 667, 669,741, 805, 810, 893, 908–9, 914,918–19, 921–2, 927

Germanization ofof Czechs, 510of Hungary, 459of Slovaks, 549

German National Assembly, 453, 497, 498Germano, A (1893–1954), 142, 330, 489,

703, 821German-Polish Treaty, (1922), 587, 634Germans, Carpathian, 768, 858, 823, 832,

856, 991(n.11)Germany, 967(n.13)

East, Constitution, (1968), 2, 21, 22, 28,84, 86, 303, 305, 339, 630, 728, 774,780, 781, 938, 939

interwar, 926post war, 19, 21, 28, 36, 37, 52, 53,

54, 963reunification of, 23, 57, 710, 715, 716,

717, 772, 948Geschichte der böhmischen Sprache und

Literatur (History of the BohemianLanguage and Literature, 1792,Prague), 489, 491

Geschichte von Böhmen (History ofBohemia, 1836–1867, Prague), 479

Gesellschaften, 43, 45Gheg, 54, 241, 242, 243, 244, 245, 246,

960(n.26), 961Gil, Dorota, 86, 148, 225, 976Giovine Europa (Young Europe), 31Gitrenkatˇt (Morning Star), 543Giza, Antoni, 450Glagolitic script, 68, 69, 70, 81, 87, 421

see also individual languagesGlinert, Lewis, 311, 316globalization, 24, 43, 90, 571, 644, 711,

713, 799, 904glossaries

Istro-Romanian, 216of Lutheran terms, 82Polish-Latin, 110, 111, 194

Główne zasady pisowni (The MainPrinciples of [Polish] Orthography,January 1918, Warsaw), 429, 605, 606

Gluhak, Alemko, 220

Gniezno (Gnesen), 117, 482Goj, Ervín (see Łysohorsky, Óndra)Golden Horde, 63, 121, 271, 272Goldstein, Ivo, 445, 456, 459, 462, 464Golinski, Cezary, 174´Gołuchowski, Agenor, Viceroy of Galicia

(1812–1875), 176, 402Gombocz, Zoltán (1877–1935), 461, 517,

681, 917, 932Gömbös, Gyula (1886–1936), 664–5, 685Górale (Goralians), 615, 732, 824Goralian, 303, 612, 615, 637, 638, 824,

830, 871, 951, 991Goralians (Górale), 614, 637, 638, 732,

733, 824, 871, 930Gorbachev, Mikhail, 868, 884Gorizia (Görz), 21, 288, 295, 296, 297Górnicki, Łukasz (1527–1603), 374, 423Górny, Grzegorz, 775Gorove, István (1819–1881), 447Görz, 288, 296, 299Gothic, 65, 67, 69, 73, 81, 84, 92, 95, 107,

116, 136, 172, 183, 184, 188, 189,194, 195, 196, 200, 296, 304, 318,342, 343, 344, 345, 347–51, 355, 359,360, 362, 396, 398, 419, 435, 473,493, 494, 506, 534, 536, 538, 540,541, 546, 548, 579, 595, 729, 741,770, 965(n.5), 968, 973, 974

Gothic script, 69, 73, 81, 84, 92, 95, 107,136, 172, 188, 189, 195, 304, 342,344, 345, 347, 348–50, 355, 362, 541,729, 741, 768, 768, 974(n.18)

ban on in Germany (1941), 350, 362,974(n.20)

Czech, 107, 136, 304, 348, 493–4,506, 541

Estonian, 200Latvian, 194–6Lithuanian, 182, 184, 188–9Mazurian, 579Moravian, 494, 506Slovak, 135, 136, 534Slovenian, 296Sorbian, 304see also individual languages

Goths (also Ostrogoths, Visigoths), 65, 67,69, 197, 202, 965(n.5), 967(n.11),973(n.19)

Grabar, 141, 323, 324, 325, 326, 327Grabski, Władysław (1874–1938), 591Gradisca, 21, 288, 297

1076 Index

Grafton, Amthony T, 98Gramatyka Cžeská (Czech Grammar, 1533,

Námešt’), 100Gramatyka powszechna wszystkim jezykom i

własne polskiemu prawidła w sobiezamykajaca, (Universal Grammar ofAll Languages, with the Principles ofPolish Duly Presented, 1767), 109

grammarsAlbanian, 244Armenian, Eastern/Western, 325, 326Belarusian, 172, 173Bosnian, 232Bulgarian, 280, 285Burgenland Croatian, 237Carniolan, 292, 294Church Slavonic, 155Croatian, 225Czech/Czechoslovak, 520, 784Daco-Romanian or Walachian, 207Esperanto, 339Estonian, 198Friulian, 300Hungarian-Ruthenian, 745Kajkavian, 236Latvian-German, 194Lithuanian, 182, 188Little Russian, 175Macedonian, 248Magyar, 122, 123, 439Moldavian, 213Molisean Croatian, 238Montenegrin, 234Moravian, 801Polish, 109, 115, 382Romance, 957(n.3)Romani, 330, 872Romanian, 209Russian, 160, 161, 162, 163, 330Ruthenian, 154, 176Serbian, 224Serbocroatian, 226Slavic language in

Carniola-Carinthia-Styria, 294Sorbian, 303, 306Turkish, 267

Grammatica Germanicae linguae(A Grammar of the German Language[. . .] Based on Luther’s Bible and HisOther Writings, 1578, Leipzig), 79

Grammatica Hungarica (Grammar ofMagyar, 1803, Pest), 439

Grammatica Hungarolatina (The Grammarof Magyar [Written] in Latin, 1536),122

Grammatica linguae Slovenicae (TheGrammar of the Slavic/SlovakLanguage, 1850), 550

Grammatica slavica (The Slavic [‘Slovak’]Grammar, 1790, Preßburg), 134, 533

Grammatyka jezyka polskiego (TheGrammar of the Polish Language,1785), 371

Grammatyka jezyka polskiego do uzytku szkółprzeznaczona (Grammar of the PolishLanguage for Schools, 1823–1827),Vilnius, 382

Grammatyka jezyka polskiego i jezykałacinskiego dla szkół narodowych (TheGrammar of the Polish language andthe Latin Language for NationalSchools), 371

Granat Bibliographical Institute, 408Granice panstwa a granice jezyka polskiego

(The Borders of the State and theBorders of the Polish Language,1920–1921), 416

Grant, W Leonard, 32, 98, 245, 316, 330,378, 391, 451, 463, 468, 553, 612,674, 683, 708, 766, 774, 811, 836,837, 856, 861, 910, 912, 930

Graus, František, 489, 502Graz (Gradec), 125, 292, 293, 295, 583,

975(n.29)Grazhdanka script, 350–2, 353–354Greater Moravia, xv, 14–15, 68–70, 87–8,

109, 131–2, 134, 158, 205, 218, 249,301, 421, 448, 450, 479, 482, 501,517, 526–9, 720, 721, 751–2, 814–16,819, 834, 853, 859, 887, 910, 966(n.7)

Great Northern War (1700–1721), 17, 958Great Schism, (1054), 87, 204, 219, 242, 291Great Serbian project, 224‘great vowel shift’, 98Greece, independent, 257, 258, 260, 360,

361Greek, 96

Attic, 39, 259, 261, 263Byzantine, 33, 41, 48, 81, 96–7, 141,

155, 164, 205, 219, 241, 242, 247,256, 259–63, 279, 308, 324, 329,360, 419

Classical, 81, 96, 97, 228, 372, 383as co-official language, Cyprus, 263

Index 1077

decline of, 97Demotic (Dhimotiki), 96, 261–3, 361dialects, 257, 263Katharévousa (purifying language), 48,

96, 261–3Koine, 109, 113, 259, 263, 891as language of Orthodox Church, 256,

351, 352as official language, 48, 218, 255, 256,

258, 260, 276spoken, 247, 259standard, 261, 263, 361

GreekCivil War, 23, 55, 245, 251, 254, 255,

411, 616, 621, 781nation-state, 247, 257, 262, 361origins of, 38, 157, 201, 418, 473, 526

Greek Catholic Church, 140, 166, 167,176, 179, 352, 355, 357, 383, 386, 390,391, 435, 450, 451, 470, 471, 529,555–6, 583, 590, 593, 602, 616, 655,656, 668, 715, 734, 735, 737, 742, 744,751, 776, 779, 783, 822, 834, 863,873–5, 891, 908, 970(n.30), 990(n.3)

see also Neo-Uniate Church, UniateChurch

Greek Catholics, 140, 166–7, 176, 352,355, 383, 390–1, 435, 450–1, 470–1,529, 555–6, 583, 590, 593, 602, 655–6,715, 734, 744, 751, 783, 822, 834,874, 891, 908, 970(n.30)

Greek Revolt (Greek War of Independence,1821–1829), 256, 258, 279, 322

Greenberg, Robert D., 226, 228, 231, 233,235, 719

Greenfeld, Liah, 24, 805Gregory of Tours, 93Gregory XVI Pope (1831–1846), 386Greguš, Peter, 823Gren, Štefan, 795, 898ˇGrenoble, Lenore A, 148, 275, 591, 972Grétsy, László, 704Grimes, Barbara F., 197, 201, 246, 269–70,

275, 966Grimm, Jacob/Grimm Wilhelm

(1785–1863), 84, 397, 439Gröll, Michał (Michael) (1722–1798), 370Gromada, Thaddeus V, 818, 829Großdeutschland, 20

see also German Empire,Kleindeutschland

große Conversations-Lexikon, Der (GreatConversation Lexicon, 1853–1857,Hildburghausen), 407

Grothusen, Klaus-Detlev, 701gubernias

Baltic, 147, 376, 395, 396, 397Western, 382, 384, 385, 386, 387,

388, 390, 393, 394–6, 398, 400, 402,413, 426, 427, 429, 585, 587, 588,590, 597

Gudai (Gudowie), 973(n.19)see also Belarusians

Guentcheva, Rossitza, 287Guenther-Swart, Imma von, 613, 615Guide to the Slavonic Languages (1951,

London and New York), 528Gumowski, Marian, 71Gut, Violetta, 616Gutenberg’s Latin Bible, 95, 342Gutsman, Ožbalt (1727–1790), 294Guzicki, Artur, 584Gyáni, Gábor, 459, 656, 669, 678, 701,

708, 711, 713Gyarmati, György, 691Gyémánt, Ladislau, 453Gymnasium, classicist, 97, 597Gypsy language, see RomaniGypsy (Roma), origin of name, 203, 215,

329–32, 334–5

Habdelic, Juraj (1609–1678), 293´Habsburgs, 15, 16, 17, 74, 75, 89, 101,

102, 106, 114, 125, 128, 220, 221,236, 247, 292, 343, 376, 391, 431–4,441, 450, 453, 455, 466, 467, 482–4,486, 487, 496, 503, 523, 525, 528,530, 532, 649, 655, 730, 906, 910,915, 927, 969, 981

Hácha, Emil (1872–1945), 765, 766, 768,774, 837

Hafner, Stanislaus, 299Hajdu, Peter, 181, 476Halich Ruthenia, 191, 271Halshnish, 191–2Halych (Halicz), 971(n.5)Hamaliar, Martin (1758–1812), 535Hamburg, 80, 302Hamuljak, Martin (1789–1859), 541Hancock, Ian, 205, 216, 335, 974Hanka, Václav (1791–1861), 425, 491, 493Hankins, James, 98

1078 Index

Hannan, Kevin, 141, 205, 299, 418, 489,503, 730, 984

Hanseatic League, 74, 80Haretski, M, 173Harmonja mów (Harmony of Languages,

1895, Vilnius), 480Harna, Josef, 658, 722, 740, 759, 766, 775Harris, Tracy K, 320Harrison, Henrietta, 946Hartmann, Silvia, 343, 350Hartmanová, Dagmar, 797Hartweg, Frédéric, 11Hasenmayer, Herbert, 299, 966Hasidim, 312Hasidism, 312–13, 315–16Haskalah, 273, 309, 312, 319, 402, 407,

977(n.44)Hattala, Martin (1821–1903), 550, 559,

560, 561–4, 842, 843, 845, 911Haubrichs, Wolfgang, 11Haugen, Brit Bakker, 26, 235, 959, 963Haugen, Einar, 26Havel, Václav, 787–800, 867, 883–4Havlícek, Karel, 481, 497, 500, 506Havlík, Lubomír E, 480, 486Havránek, Bohuslav, 418, 510, 516, 517,

625, 760, 764, 785, 786, 796, 943Havránek, Jan, 418, 510, 516, 517, 760,

764, 785, 786Hay (Armenian self-ethnonym), 174, 321Hayastan (see Armenia)Hayeren (see Armenian)Hazai Tudósítások (Reports from the

Homeland), 440Hebraists, 309Hebrew, 33, 49, 58, 68, 71, 78–81, 91,

100, 116, 131, 139, 140, 142–3, 149,152, 172, 186, 258, 259, 264, 271–2,301, 307–11, 315–21, 331, 333, 335,336, 339, 341, 362, 387, 402, 435,475, 589, 595–7, 600, 601, 613, 635,687, 739, 749, 929, 961(n.33 ), 977–8

Heck, Roman, 103, 107, 486, 491, 493, 495Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich

(1770–1831), 46, 499Heidler, Ján, 537, 540, 545Hej, Sloveni ešte naša slovenská rec žije

(song) (O, Slavs [Slovaks], there stilllives our Slavic [Slovak] language), 443

Helfferich, Adolph, 476Hellenes, 256, 257Hellenic empire, 257, 308

Hellenic kingdom, 257Helsinki Final Act (1975), 693, 866, 867Helyesírásí kéziszótár (The Principles of

Magyar Orthography and Grammar,1954, Budapest), 704

Helyesírásí tanácsadó szótár (The Dictionaryof Advice How to Write Correctly,1961, Budapest), 704

Henlein, Konrad (1898–1945), 675, 753,754, 774, 836, 856

Herder, Benjamin (1818–1888), 407Herder, Johann Gottfried (1744–1803), 30,

44, 45, 46, 47, 105, 278, 435, 436, 495Herkel, Ján (Joanne Pannonio Herkel)

(1786–1840), 477ff, 539Herod, Charles C, 500, 513Herrity, Peter, 493Herzl, Theodor (1860–1904), 402, 403Herzogtum Franken, 77

see also FranconiaHetmanate, the, 167, 411Hetzer, Armin, 246Heyd, Uriel, 267HG (Hlinková garda), 853, 855, 991(n.6)Hieronymian script, see Glagolitic scriptHigonnet, Patrice L.-R., 979(n.2)Hilgemann, Werner, 71Hirner, Alexander (1911–1987), 879, 944Hindi, 258, 328, 330, 852Hindu-Arabic numerals see Arabic

numeralsHistoria gentis Slavae (History of the Slavs,

1780, Fünfkirchen [Pécs]), 134, 529Historia gentis Slavae. De regno regibusque

Slavorum (History of the Slavic People:On the kingdom and kings of theSlavs), 134

Historical Atlas of Central Europe (2002,Seattle), 13

Historical Atlas of East Central Europe(1993, Seattle), 13

Historická mluvnice ceskoslovenská(Historical Grammar of Czechoslovak,1935, Prague), 520

Historický slovník slovenského jazyka (TheHistorical Dictionary of the SlovakLanguage, Bratislava, 1991–), 763, 899

historiography, Slovak national, 47, 63,66, 262, 326, 455, 495, 496, 528, 529,556, 581, 675, 770, 813, 814, 818,819, 937, 942, 963

Index 1079

History of East Central Europe,A (1974–, Seattle WA), 12

History of Ukraine-Rus, 401Hitchins, Keith, 127, 208, 990Hitler, Adolf (1889–1945), 20, 30, 56, 339,

570, 664, 665, 666, 689, 754, 765,837, 851, 852, 935

Hlas (1898–1906), 463, 511, 512, 554,811, 836

Hlasowé o potˇebtˇt e jednoty spisowného jazykaˇpro Cechy, Morawany a Slowaky (Voiceson the Need of the Unity of the WrittenLanguage for Bohemians, Moravians,and Slovaks, 1842, Prague), 540

Hlinka, Andrej (1864–1938), 556, 562,720, 721, 732, 733, 750, 752, 753,754, 758, 788, 812, 816, 823, 827,828, 834, 836, 851, 853, 887, 913

Hlucínsko, the, 741ˇHobsbawm, Eric John, 49, 149Hochman, Jirí, 790, 793ˇHódossy, Imre, 816Hodža, Michal Miloslav, 842Hodža, Milan, 520, 555, 561, 750, 771,

836, 857Hoensch, Jörg K, 667, 693, 696Hohenzollerns, 16, 17Hojc, Samuel (1806–1868), 522, 542ˇHolec, Roman, 456, 525Holloway, Julia Bolton, 345Hollý, Ján (1785–1849), 479, 480, 512,

534, 537, 546, 751, 814Holocaust, the, 6, 36, 52, 79, 301, 307,

310, 311, 313, 315, 319, 326, 331,333, 584, 617, 618, 688, 690, 708,893, 936, 938, 953

see also EndlösungHolov, Hovhannes, 325Holub, Josef, 605, 763, 785, 933, 945Holy Roman Emperor Francis II,

(1792–1835), 17Holy Roman Empire, xv, 4, 15, 17–18, 33,

39–40, 63ff, 67, 68, 71–7, 80, 83, 87,90, 94, 97, 101, 103, 104, 106, 108,109, 113, 121, 126, 151, 249, 256,273, 290, 292, 294, 301, 307, 311,343–5, 351, 365, 370, 379, 434, 437–8,453, 478, 482–3, 488, 499, 504, 523,648, 805ff, 815, 910, 926, 935,961(n.32), 964(n.3), 981(n.10)

Holy See (see Vatican, the)Holy Writ (see Bible)

Holy, Ladislav, 725, 842Holzer, Jerzy, 384Homaranismo, 337

see also Esperanto, Zamnhofhomogeneity, of ethnolinguistic

composition, 36, 510Honzák, F., 201, 205, 220, 242, 246, 255,

275, 299, 306, 965, 971, 974, 975,977, 983

Horák, Gejza, 565, 595, 602, 608, 880,984, 987

Horak, Stephan, 595, 602, 608, 880,984, 987

Horec, Jaromír, 86, 103ˇHorecký, Ján, 565, 872Horecký, Konštantín, 595, 898Horthy, Miklós (1868–1967), 660, 663–5,

689, 758Horvatov sloga i zjedinjenje (poem)

(Croatian Concord and Unity, 1832),443

Hösler, Joachim, 299Hospodárske noviny (Economic News), 897Hradecný, Pavel, 263ˇHrinchenko, Borys (1863–1910), 177, 178Hroch, Miroslav, 11, 24, 106–8, 190, 575,

719, 730, 962(n.41)Hrodna (Grodna, Grodno), 19, 408,

980(n.8)Hrubý, Zikmund, 100Hrushevsky, Michael, 167Hrushevs’kyi, Mykhailo (1836–1934), 401Hrycak, Jarosław, 164, 388, 392, 410, 416,

586, 614, 616, 619HSL’S (Hlinkova slovenská l’udova strana)

(HSL’S, Hlinka Slovak People’s Party),750, 753, 765, 771, 772, 834, 835,836, 837, 838, 862

Hübschman, Heinrich (1848–1908), 324Hudson, R. A, 149Hukovic, Muhamed, 143´humanist minuscule, 342, 343Humboldt, Wilhelm von (1767–1853), 46,

597, 962Hungarian Academy of Sciences, 439, 441,

442, 460, 461, 681, 703, 704, 815Commission for Language Politics, 624,

642, 703Committee of Correct Writing, 704

Hungarian government, 130, 437, 444,454–5, 457, 548, 549, 555, 558, 560,665, 683, 685, 689, 745, 926

1080 Index

Hungarian National Assembly, 457Hungarian National Museum and Library

in Pest, 440Hungarian Social Democratic Party, 655Hungarian-Ruthenian (Ruthenian), 470,

687, 744, 745, 767, 778, 872see also Rusyn

Hungarian-Windish, 299, 467see also Prekmurjan, Slovenian

Hungary, 431–4, 646, 647, 768Constitution, (1949), 305, 698, 707Crown of, 125culture in, 520, 725, 817decline of Latin in, 444–5economy of, 655, 693, 700, 701,

706, 713ethnolinguistic homogeneity, 690, 691fall of independent, 456, 903independence of, 456, 512, 658, 659,

689, 732, 742, 768, 815, 819,854, 903

Kingdom of, 15–17, 19, 40, 67, 72, 97,101, 104, 121, 122–5, 127, 128, 130,131, 137, 139, 145, 146, 147, 150,167, 201, 204–5, 219–21, 291, 313,323, 328, 344, 352, 358, 411, 431–4,436, 442, 445, 450, 457, 466, 472,482–4, 524, 528, 530–1, 533,538–40, 542, 544, 548, 549, 551,553, 569, 610, 645–50, 653–6, 660,663, 667–8, 670, 676–7, 691–2, 699,715, 721, 742, 806–7, 813–15, 820,825, 828, 906, 915–16, 927,981(n.1), 982(n.7)

media in, 678, 701, 711minorities, national, 683, 686, 687, 698minority languages, 650, 669Ottoman, 16, 88, 126, 277, 680, 915Partition of, 915, 926Partium, 672, 969(n.26)People’s Republic of, 466, 622, 658, 692,

731, 820, 821political parties, 653, 655, 658, 665post WW II, 651, 937religion in, 466, 655Republic of, 653, 691, 693, 706restoration of monarchy, 660role of Latin in, 434–5, 436Royal Hungary, 88, 121, 124–7, 131, 146,

237, 431–2, 466–7, 523–4, 679, 915Soviet Republic of, 558, 659status law, (2001), 709

territorial autonomy, 654territorial changes, 660–1, 665–6, 671,

686, 689Transylvania, 17, 20, 124, 213, 549,

969(n.30)Upper (Slovakia), 523World War II, 666, 689

Hunnia, 474Hunnish, 475Huns, 63, 202, 474, 672, 965(n.5)Hurban, Jozef Miloslav (1817–1888), 450,

545, 546–8, 553, 554, 560, 561Hurban-Vajánský, Svetozár (1847–1916),

553–4Hus, Jan (1370–1415), 39, 69, 99, 100,

112, 122, 124, 136, 422–4, 504, 508,750, 834

Husák, Gustáv (1913–1991), 777, 864, 865,866, 868, 992

Hussite Wars, 99, 100, 503Hussitism, 39, 100, 122, 505Hutterer, C J, 316, 662Hýsek, Miloslav, 528HZDS (Hnutie za demokratické Slovensko)

(HZDS, Movement for DemocraticSlovakia), 788, 789

Iaroslav I the Wise (r.1019–1054), 158Idea státu rakouského (The Idea of the

Austrian State, 1865, Prague), 500Ideen zur Philosophie der Geschichte der

Menschheit (1784–1792, Riga andLeipzig, Outlines of a Philosophy ofthe History of Man, 1800, London),46, 47, 435

Ido (Idiomo Di Omni), 338(I)jekavian, 225–6, 229–34, 239–40,

975(n.28), 975(n.29)see also Bosnian, Croatian, Ekavian,

Serbo-CroatianIllich, Ivan, 25illiteracy

Belarusians/Ukrainians, 586Hungary, 677, 700Poland, 393, 602–3Roma, 331Slovakia, 518, 841Subcarpathian Ruthenia, 736, 737see also literacy

Illyria (1809–1813), 17, 18, 69, 221, 222,294, 443, 444, 654, 655

Illyrian Provinces, 290, 295

Index 1081

Illyro-Thracian, 243Ilustrowana encyklopedja Trzaski, Everta i

Michalskiego (The IllustratedEncyclopedia of [the PublishingHouse] of Trzaska, Evert andMichalski, 1927–1937, Warsaw),605, 932

Imagined Communities (1983, London), 44Imago antiquae Hungariae (The Picture of

Old Hungary, 1733, Kaschau [Košice]),528, 819

Imperialism: The highest stage of capitalism,213, 909, 921

Imre, Samu, 67, 124, 126, 127, 128, 440,442, 692, 693, 816

Index Bohemicorum librorum prohibitorum etcorrigendorum (Index of the ProhibitedBohemian Books, 1729, Prague), 488

India, independent, 53Indo-European languages, 46, 65, 67, 91,

186, 217, 240, 257, 259, 290, 321,324, 328, 336, 475, 635, 946,962(n.42), 965, 966, 967

industrial revolution (UK), 8, 65industrialization, and literacy, 8, 18, 143,

145, 305, 487, 574, 585, 630, 756,776, 784, 863

industrialization/urbanization (Poland),145, 574

inequalities, Czech/Slovak, 724,749, 833

Inoue, Koichi, 575In Search of Central Europe (1989,

Cambridge UK and Totowa NJ), 12Institute of the Czech Language, 785Institute of the Lithuanian Language, 190institutione grammatical libri tres, De (The

Three Books of GrammaticalPrinciples, 1572, Lisbon), 371

intelligentsia, 39, 43, 117, 124, 168, 369,370, 387, 397, 399, 401, 413, 415,416, 426, 430, 448, 449, 520, 531,574, 575, 597, 598, 599, 608, 612,614, 621, 631, 640, 641, 642, 650,677, 679, 700, 701, 855, 906, 908, 961

intelligibility, 32, 33, 524, 959, 963International Congress of Statistics (1872),

Sixth, 49, 399international relations, 29, 32, 38, 591,

709, 839, 938International Roma Union, 328, 332

internationalism, (1956), 696, 699, 927,941, 946, 991

interwar reorganization of Europe, 926Ionchev, Vasil, 355, 360Ioncheva, Olga, 355, 360Ionian Islands, 262Irish alphabet, 92Irish national movement, 345Iron Curtain, 12, 22, 91, 570, 629, 706Isaev, Magomet I, 266, 956Isaievych, Iaroslav, 357Isakovic, Alija, 143´Isayev, M I, 171Iskolai nyelvm˝vel˝ (Advice on the Correct

Use of [Our] Language for Schools,1959, Budapest), 703

Islam, 39, 48, 81, 88, 93, 126, 139, 143,204, 224, 227, 243, 246, 254, 256,258, 264, 265, 271, 273, 275, 286,287, 310, 321, 329, 961

Israel, 49, 59, 60, 61, 238, 309–12, 315,319, 320, 458, 618, 695, 939, 961, 977

Issatschenko, Alexander V, 157, 160, 162,164, 167, 374

Istanbul (Constantinople), 16, 80, 81, 141,142, 143, 150, 151, 158, 164, 205,219, 220, 242, 244, 247, 249, 254–60,262, 266–7, 269, 277, 279–84, 318–19,320, 322, 324–6, 354, 594, 964(n.3),970(n.2), 975(n.27), 977(n.47)

see also ConstantinopleIstoria pentru începutul românilor în Dacia

(History of the Origin of theRomanians in Dacia, 1812, Buda), 452

Istoriia na bulgarskii ezik (History of theBulgarian Language, 1919, Sofia), 527

Istria, 19, 21, 64, 202, 222, 288, 296, 297Istro-Romanians, 202, 210, 216István (Stephen) I, King (r. 997–1038), 121Italian, 40, 48, 420Italy, Kingdom of, 908Ivan IV the Terrible (r.1533–1584),

Tsar, 151Ivano-Frankivsk (Stanislau, Stanisławów,

Stanyslaviv), 588Ivic, Pavle, 354Ivrit (Modern Hebrew), 309, 310, 336Izmir (Smyrna), 81, 223, 280, 318, 354

Jääts, Indrek, 197, 201Jablonskis, Jonas (1860–1930), 188Jagiellonian dynasty, 70, 110

1082 Index

Jagodzinski, Grzegorz, 299Jahic, Dževad, 233Jähnig, Bernhart, 98, 201, 584Jakó, Zsigmond, 344Jakowenko, Natalia, 167Jakubovich, Emil, 681Jakubowicz, Antoni (1789–1842), 382Jakubowicz, Maxymilian (1785–1853), 382Janák, Jan, 510Jancák, Pavel, 796, 881Jancovic, Štefan, 562, 846Janecek, Pavel, 801Janicki, Artur, 398Janos, Andrew C, 122, 128, 130, 431, 439,

442, 460, 461, 475, 477, 527, 675, 680,681, 725, 753, 855, 909, 917, 932, 992

Jánošik, Anton (1904–1971), 777, 824,825, 860, 876–9, 943, 991

Jánošik, Juraj, 824Janoušek, Antonín (1877–1941), 825Janowicz, Jarosław, 628Janowicz, Sokrat, 114Jánský, L. M, 768, 859, 860January Uprising (1863–1864), 18, 392,

393, 394, 396, 397, 399, 404, 426, 427Jaroszewicz, Henryk, 231, 233, 240, 698Järv, Harry, 345, 346Jastrzebski, Włodziemierz, 613Jászi, Oszkár, 464, 653, 654, 655, 656Jaworski, Tomasz, 150Jazykovedné glosy k ceskoslovenskej otázke

(Linguistic Notes on the CzechoslovakQuestion, 1935, Turciansky SvätýMartin), 527

Jazykovedný sborník (Journal ofLinguistics), 877

Jazykovedný ústav (Institute ofLinguistics), 859, 860, 878–81, 899,900, 934

Jazykovedný ústav L’udovíta Štúra(L’udovít Štúr Institute ofLinguistics), 880

Jedisan, 16, 17Jedlicka, Alois, 785Jedlicki, Jerzy, 575Jednota, 101, 463, 512, 557, 719, 810, 811,

812, 857Jednota bratrská (Czech Brethren), 101

see also Unitas FratrumJedrzejewicz, Wacław, 416, 588Jehlicska, František 1879–1939, 732Jelinek, Yeshayahu, 688

Jerczynski, Dariusz, 582, 730Jerome, Saint, 69, 93Jerusalem of Lithuania (Vilnius), 403Jesuit Slovak, 133, 134, 135, 532Jeszenszky, Géza, 710Jewish Autonomous Soviet Region of

Birobidzhan, 315Jewish German, 78, 311, 387Jewish nationalism, 49, 79, 310, 313, 326,

333, 335, 402, 596, 597, 977Jewish nation-state, 309, 310, 319, 336,

403, 596Jews, the, 141, 977(n.43)

Ashkenazim/Ashkenazic, 142, 307emigration from Poland, 595emigration, forced, 6, 11, 36, 939, 953Hungarian, 458, 656, 685, 690Magyarization of, 449, 458, 464, 472,

539, 543, 555, 656, 826Russian-speaking, 310Sephardic, 81, 142, 307, 317, 320Slovakia, 855Soviet, 314, 315see also anti-Semitism, Endlösung,

HolocaustJezernik, Božidar, 49Jezierski, Franciszek Salezy, Father

(1740–1791), 116, 370Jezyk Polski (periodical) (The Polish

Language), 416Jocher, Adam (1791–1860), 480Jocher, Adam Benedykt (1791–1860), 480Jodłowski, Stanisław, 371, 384, 424, 426,

430, 607, 625–6, 628John Paul II, Pope (see Wojtyła, Karol)Johnson, Lonnie R, 104, 130Johnson, Owen V, 464, 550Johnson, William H. E., 115, 148, 162,

371, 376, 384, 388Jóna, Eugen, 777, 861, 876, 877, 878, 879,

883, 943Jones, William (1746–1794), 475Još Hrvatska ni propatá (song), 443Joseph II, Emperor (r. 1765–1790), 103,

105, 128, 375, 432, 445, 456, 484,486, 487, 490, 529

Josephine reforms, 433, 437, 443, 445,451, 534, 648, 715

Journal of Psychology of Nation andLinguistics (1860–1928), 46

Jovanovich, Nebojsha, 222, 240

Index 1083

Judenstaat,t Der (The Jews’ State, 1896,Vienna), 402

Juden-Teutsch (Jewish German), 78Judeo-Slavic, 71Judge, Anne, 371, 525Juhász, Dezs, 705Juhász, József, 704Junga, V. A, 489Jungmann, Josef (1773–1843), 107, 117,

130. 348, 460, 478, 479, 491, 492,493, 494, 506, 513, 515, 534, 536,537, 540, 542, 762, 763, 796, 906,911, 913, 917, 933, 960(n.23)

jus sanguinis, 42jus soli, 42Juška, Jonas, 185, 973Jussila, Osmo, 164Jutrzenka (newspaper), 400

Kacala, Ján, 757, 780, 842, 851, 861, 881,ˇ883, 899

Kacka, Bo ˙aa zena, 619˙Kádár, János, 992(n.12)Kadare, Ismail, 245Kadłubek, Wincenty, Bishop (1150–1223),

418Kajkavian, 221, 223, 225, 236, 237, 291,

293, 299, 444, 467–8see also Cakavian, Croatian

Kajkavian society, 237Kálal, Karel (1860–1930), 564, 847,

848, 850Kálal, Miroslav (1893–1962), 564–5, 567,

848, 851, 879, 934Káldi, György (1570–1634), 123Kalé, 329Kalevipoeg (Estonian epic poem), 194, 199Kaliningrad (Königsberg, Królewiec), 4, 22,

75, 81, 111, 181, 182, 187, 478,972(n.11)

Kállay, Béni (1839–1903), 226, 227,471, 689

see also BosnianKállay, Miklós (1887–1967), 689Kamenec, Ivan, 855Kamiš, Adolf, 136, 565, 780, 786, 882, 944Kamler, Marcin, 307Kamusella, Tomasz, 35, 157, 493, 503,

582, 585, 634, 957, 984Kanikova, S. I., 70, 124, 157, 170, 175,

177, 179, 182, 197, 201, 208, 222,

225, 228, 242, 246, 255, 264, 279,285, 299, 307, 316, 327, 398, 976

Kann, Robert A., 103, 104, 105, 130, 205,222, 279, 299, 433, 493, 503, 510,513, 540

Kant, Immanuel (1724–1804), 45Kapr, Albert, 343–4, 350Kara, Gail, 217, 626Karadžic, Vuk (1787–1864), 223–36,´

538, 545Karaim, 264, 271, 272Karaims, 157, 271, 272, 639Karamzin, Nikolai Mikhailovich

(1766–1826), 161, 162, 372Karas, Mieczysław (1924–1977), 626´Kardos, Gábor, 708Karlík, Petr, 424, 517, 608, 764, 787Karlovac (Karlstadt, Károlyváros), 64, 542Karłowicz, Jan (1836–1903), 397, 405, 406,

428, 461, 480, 604, 796, 913, 917, 932Karman, Danel (1663–1740), 133ˇKarmasin, Franz (1901–1970), 768, 856Károli, Gáspár (1529–1592), 122Károlyi, Mihály (1875–1955), 653, 657,

658, 659, 660, 731Kárpátalja, 687, 767, 856

see also Carpathiakárpátaljai magyar nyelvjárások atlasza,

A (The Atlas of the Magyar Dialects inCarpathia, 1992–2003, Budapest), 705

Karulis, Konstantıns, 201¯Kasa Miankowskiego (Miankowski

Foundation), 397Kashubian, 27, 28, 183, 303, 340, 341,

348, 350, 417, 580, 582, 609, 635, 636,637, 638, 639, 643, 951, 986, 987, 988

Kashubian national movement, 580Kashubs, 14, 26, 290, 348, 417, 578, 580,

581, 620, 635, 636, 637, 638, 639,775, 930, 940, 986, 895

Kasper, Martin, 307Katona, István Geleji (1589–1645), 123Katowice (Kattowitz, Stalinogród), 621Kaunas, Domas, 187, 188, 189, 348, 396,

412, 586, 611, 614Kaunas (Kovno, Kowno), 187–9, 347, 396,

412, 586, 611, 614Kavulok, Jirí, 770ˇKazinczy, Ferenc (1759–1831), 439,

440, 441Khmelnytskyi (Płoskirów, Proskurov), 312Kedourie, Elie, 24

1084 Index

KEN (Komisja Edukacji Narodowej), 115,116, 369, 370, 371, 374, 375, 376,377, 383, 434, 440

Kenrick, Donald, 335, 619Ker, William Paton, 421Kerner, Robert Joseph, 676, 749Késmárk (Kežmarok, Käsmark), 823

see also Germans, CarpathianKeyser, Jason, 311Khazaria, 71Kholm Eparchy of Volhynia, 385Khrushchev, Nikita (1894–1971), 692, 864Khudaverdian, K S, 327Khuen-Héderváry, Károly (1849–1918),

464Khust (Hust, Huszt), 736Kiaupa, Zigmuntas, 182, 183, 190, 197,

398, 616, 973Kiev Agreement, (1916), 719Kievan Rus, 14, 15, 70, 71, 87, 88, 112,

141, 155, 157, 158, 164, 165, 166, 167,171, 177, 218, 249, 291, 346, 527,958(n.11), 966(n.11), 967, 971(n.6)

Kinder, Hermann, 71King, Charles, 27, 121, 205, 213–15King, Jeremy, 11, 502, 905Kinsky, Franz Josef (1739–1805), 106, 107,

490, 492Kipchak Turkic, 113, 141, 142, 271, 323Kipchaks, 271Kirschbaum, Joseph M, 519, 803, 813, 829,

832, 836, 839, 853, 855, 858, 869,885, 892

Kirschbaum, Stanislav J, 813, 829, 832,836, 839, 853, 855, 858, 869, 885, 892

Kisfaludy, Károly (1788–1830), 437, 441Kiss, Jeno, 66, 424kitabs, 157Kizwalter, Tomasz, 384, 979Klagenfurt (Celovec), 289, 292, 293, 296Klagenfurt Plebiscite (1920), 289Klaniczay, Tibor, 476Klaus, Václav, 789, 801, 884Kleindeutschland, 18, 392

see also German Empire,Großdeutschland, Little Germannation-state

Kleinrussisch (see Ukrainian)Kleinruthenisch (see Ukrainian)Kleinstaaterei, 4–5Klemencic, Matja, 698, 710

Klemensiewicz, Zenon, 110–11, 115, 116,117, 118, 164, 345, 376, 379, 384,392, 398, 406, 410, 606, 623, 624

Klimó, Arpad von, 440, 476, 946Klimowicz, Mieczysław, 371, 374, 379Kloch, Zbigniew, 371, 374, 426Kloss, Heinz, 86Knaanic, 71Knapski, Grzegorz, 110, 378Kneževic, Anthony, 459, 464Kniezsa, István, 705, 947Knijževni dogovor (Literary Accord, 1850),

144Knjžka slow cžeských (The Book of the

Czech Words, 1587, Prague), 101Kobzar (The Bard, 1840, St Petersburg), 175Kochanowski, Jan (1530–1584), 111, 423Kochanowski, Jerzy, 459, 559Kohn, Hans, 24, 30, 673, 956, 962(n.41)Kókay, György, 678, 683Kolesár, Peter, 790, 899Kollár, Ján (Kollar, Johann), 449, 477, 478,

537, 544, 718Kollár, Karol, 437, 836, 846, 880Kołłataj, Hugo (1750–1812), 369, 374Komenského slovník naucný (The Komenský

[Comenius] Scientific Dictionary,1937–1938, Prague), 761

Komenský, Jan Amos (see Comenius)Komisja Kultury Jezyka (Commission for

Language Politics, Poland), 624Komissarova, E. V, 348Kompiš, Petr (1886–1945), 780, 847, 848Konecný, Jan Nepomuk (1815–1887),

519, 521Konecný, Stanislav, 519, 521, 823,

875, 990Koneski, Blaže (1921–1993), 141, 251, 255König, Werner, 86, 98, 970Königlich-Böhmische Gesellschaft der

Wissenschaften (Royal BohemianSociety of Sciences), 492

Kont, Ignace, 129Kontler, László, 98, 124–6, 128, 222, 435,

437, 439, 459, 818, 969Konversations-Lexikon (Conversation

Lexicon, 1796–1811, Leipzig), 407Kopczynski, Onufry (1735–1817), 115,

371, 372, 373, 374, 378, 380, 381,382, 384, 424, 428

Kopecký, Milan, 344Kopecký, Miloslav, 565

Index 1085

Kopecný, František, 785ˇKopitar, Bartholomäus (Jernej)

(1780–1844), 224, 225, 294, 961, 966Kopys, Tadeusz, 459, 464, 674, 969´Korais, Adamantios (1743–1833), 261Koran, 89, 126, 157, 211, 227, 232, 233,

246, 258, 260, 261, 265, 266, 267,284, 309, 310, 325, 340, 969(n.27),976(n.37)

Albanian translation of, 246, 258Armenian translation of, 325Bosnian translation of, 233Bulgarian translation of, 252, 276, 280,

281, 283, 284Esperanto translation of, 337, 340Greek translation of, 256, 261Hebrew translation of, 309Ivrit translation of, 310Ottoman (Old Turkish) translation of,

88, 207, 233, 250, 256, 259, 265,266–8, 272, 277, 319, 323, 341, 354,361, 471, 915, 961, 969

Romanian translation of, 211Serbo-Croatian translation of, 227–8Slavic translation of, 154, 227, 232, 254Tatar translation of, 274Turkish translation of, 267

Korbel, Josef, 803Korenizatsia (nativization), 178, 213,

339, 846Korenský, Jan, 780, 795, 801, 892ˇKornhauser, Julian, 222, 240Korolevsky, Cyril, 557Korovytsky, I, 177, 179Kosáry, Domokos, 129, 134, 476Kosciuszko, Tadeusz (1746–1817), 371´Košic, Jožef (1788–1867), 299ˇKošice Government Programme, 772Košice (Kaschau, Kassa), 72, 128, 466, 528,

549, 657, 666, 671, 689, 690, 723,731, 765, 772, 783, 800, 819, 820,821–2, 845, 857, 875, 878, 992(n.15)

Kosovo (Kosova), xiv, 20, 22, 23, 37, 54,57–8, 222, 234, 240, 243, 245, 254,358, 359, 363, 697, 710, 960(n.26)

Kosovo crisis (1999), 234Kossuth, Lajos (1802–1894), 446, 447, 453,

454, 455, 456, 457, 463, 546Kostický, Bohu, 464Kotliarevskyi, Ivan (1769–1838), 171, 175Kott, Štepan František (1825–1915), 515,

564, 567, 761, 763, 848, 913, 917

Kotvan, Imrich (1910–1984), 535, 991Kotyška Vacláv (1865–1945), 761Kovác, Dušan, 103, 450, 456, 462, 513,ˇ

519, 549, 557, 559, 562, 719, 722, 725,734, 753, 768, 771, 775, 777, 790,813, 818, 829, 836, 839, 855, 858,869, 885

Kovalovszky, Miklós, 704Kövés, Béla, 703Középeurópa (In-Between Europe), 12Krajcoviˇˇ c, Rudolf, 133, 521, 532, 535ˇKralice Bible, 101, 102, 103, 107, 123, 133,

469, 519, 532, 533, 535, 536, 911Kramár, Karel, 719ˇKramerius, Matej Václav (1759–1808),

106, 491Krátka mluvnica slovenská (A Short Slovak

Grammar, 1852, Preßburg), 551,560, 842

Krátky slovník slovenského jazyka (The ShortDictionary of the Slovak Language,1987, Bratislava), 881, 899

Kravetskii, Aleksandr Genadevich, 360Krejcí, Jaroslav, 24ˇKrekovic, Eduard, 483, 722, 753, 768, 818,ˇ

820, 825, 836, 853, 869, 883, 892, 991Kremianets (Kremenets, Krzemieniec),

376, 385, 979(n.6)Krenn, Gerald, 829, 986Kreplin, Klaus-Dieter, 417Kresy (Eastern Polish borderlands, the),

590–1Kreutzwald, Friedrich Reinhold

(1803–1882), 199Kristoforidhi, Konstandin Nelko

(1827–1895), 244Križanic, Juraj (1618–1683), 478´Krk (Veglia), 68, 973Krofta, Kamil, 491, 722, 730, 734, 738,

768, 770Król, Kazimierz, 392, 397, 970Król, Marcin, 392Kryms’kyi, A (1871–1941), 178Krynski, Adam Antoni, 427, 428´Kryns’kyi, Antoni (1864–1932), 397Kryvichan, 172Kubín, Josef Štefan (1864–1965), 565,

847–8Kucera, Karel, 786ˇKüchelböhmisch (‘kitchen Czech’), 103Kulakauskas, Antanas, 376, 384, 387, 388,

398, 403, 586, 980

1086 Index

Kulísek, Vladimír, 464Kulish, Panteleimon, 170, 177, 401Kulishivka (Ukrainian Cyrillic), 401, 402Kulmsee (Chełmza), 15kulturnost, 723, 725Kultursprachen, 85Kun, Béla (1886–1939), 121, 659, 660, 673Kuniš, Michael (1765–1835), 531Kupa, 222Kurkowska, Halina (1922–1983), 626, 640Kuršaitis, Frydrychas (1806–1884), 184Kusá, Dagmar, 869Küzmic, Mikloš (1737–1804), 299Kuzmin, Michail, 148Kvacala, Ján, 719, 720Kyiv, secondary school (academy), 15, 17,

58, 72, 114, 154, 155–6, 158, 163, 177,178, 179, 247, 275, 314, 376, 385,387, 401, 411, 412, 443, 471, 527,719, 744, 872, 873, 892, 958, 972

Kyiv (Kiev, Kijów), 15, 17, 58, 72, 114,154, 155, 156, 158, 163, 177, 178,179, 247, 275, 314, 376, 385, 387,411–12, 443, 471, 527, 719, 744,872–3, 892, 958(n.11), 972(n.9)

Kyiv-Mohyla Academy, 156Kyuchkov, Hristo, 334, 978

La Défense et Illustration de la languefrançaise (The Defence andDescription of the French Language,1549), 45

Łabyncew, Jurij, 595Lachia, 728Lachian, 340, 341, 728, 822Laˇ¯cplesisˇ (Latvian epic poem), 194Ladin, 300, 317Ladino, 81, 139, 142–3, 301, 311, 317–20,

331, 335, 336, 341, 808, 978see also Spanyol

Ładogórski, Tadeusz, 379, 384, 388, 398,416, 586

Lakatos, Judit, 701, 794, 899Lakó, György, 705Lakoff, Robin Tolmach, 63l’amore della lingua (‘love of one’s

language’), 45Land Ober Ost, 168, 172, 188, 195, 313,

357, 408–10, 585, 588–9, 597, 600,614–15, 914, 929, 935, 958(n.13)

Lande, Jerzy (1886–1954), 623

Landespatriotismus, 106, 488, 490, 495,496, 498, 501, 502, 504, 508, 510,547, 716, 806, 814, 906

Landessprache, 390landesüblichen Sprachen, 226, 390,

392, 596Lands of the Czech Crown (1346), 15, 16,

73, 101–3, 106–7, 117–18, 128, 137,145, 290, 391, 417, 463, 476, 477,482–4, 488, 490, 496–8, 500, 501,503–4, 506–8, 512, 517, 523, 525, 530,539, 577, 717, 721, 729, 730, 773,791, 806, 807, 885, 910, 915, 927

Langevelde, Ab van, 86Language, 7, 8, 27, 28, 32, 33

civilizedness of, 372classification of, 65, 129, 324, 488, 489,

545, 964, 984EU official, 902function of, 8, 44, 60, 91, 122, 137, 237,

282, 346, 351, 352, 426, 462, 531,670, 801, 814, 882, 930

as instrument of identity, 10, 11, 46, 49,217, 931

as instrument of ideology, 238as instrument of politics, 34, 44, 49,

435, 648, 710, 756isomorphism of language, nation, and

state, 29, 35, 52, 53, 54, 56, 57, 58,59, 60, 61, 963

origin of, 44–6, 105, 186, 269, 187, 417,452, 473, 475, 478, 480, 519, 531,673, 965, 971, 972, 974, 985

politicization, 6, 42, 44, 102, 123, 215,229, 246, 345, 370, 397, 460, 465,594, 648, 919, 932, 945, 947, 952

and religion, 10, 32, 38, 39, 48, 53, 67,87, 88, 89, 93, 108, 113, 126, 127,132, 139, 143–4, 153, 164, 195, 200,205, 209, 231, 245, 246, 254, 256,259, 263–7, 273, 277, 281, 286, 308,311, 318, 320, 321, 324, 331, 337,341, 356, 368, 372, 395, 428, 433,451, 466, 472, 487, 496, 529, 579,594, 633, 650, 655, 656, 673, 708,712, 716, 734, 735, 744, 791, 798,807, 822, 868, 887, 910, 926, 959,961, 965, 980

written culture, 85see also linguistics

Language Law (1920, Czechoslovakia),196, 197, 442, 518, 738, 743, 747, 828

Index 1087

language of Babel, 5, 43, 472language/nation, similarities, 23–9language riots, Prague, 756Lanstyák, István, 711Lanti, Eugène, 338Lastauskas, V, 602Lastouski, Vaclau, 173˘Lateran Council, fourth (1215), 78Latgalian (High Latvian), 194, 195,

196, 200Latin, 86, 87, 91, 93, 98

alphabet/script, 27, 39, 41, 48, 50, 55–6,61, 70, 93, 95, 112, 113, 119, 139,141, 143, 153, 155, 160, 170, 176,189, 194, 196, 205, 209, 212, 213,214, 219, 225, 227, 228, 230, 231,233, 234, 236, 243, 244, 267–70,274–5, 278, 286, 292, 293, 299, 314,317, 319, 341–3, 346, 351–3, 355–9,362–3, 390–1, 393, 394, 396, 398,402, 418–19, 420, 423, 435, 470,471, 552, 594, 603, 718, 737, 745,891, 935, 976, 977–8

Carolingian, 68, 71, 74, 77, 92,94–6, 342

decline of, 74, 80, 98, 114, 200, 258,263, 279, 327, 354, 602, 756

as ‘devil instrument’, 278humanist project of renewing, 95as language of education, 89, 115, 280,

401, 414, 446, 593, 746, 833Medieval, 93, 94, 95, 96, 98, 343,

959, 967as official language, 255and religion, 89, 97as sociolect, 111, 119, 369, 370,

597–8, 701standard/vulgar, 35, 40, 92, 93, 94,

203, 419use in Hungary, 434–5, 436

Latinitas Foundation, 98Latinization, 41, 56, 266, 268, 272, 314,

326, 330, 358, 594, 961(n.36), 962,974, 979

Latium, 91, 198Latoszek, Marek, 581Latvia, 193, 197–8, 411Latvian, 50, 52, 61, 81, 119, 139, 146,

163, 172, 180, 184, 186–92, 193, 194,195–200, 282, 313, 325, 334, 344,346–7, 358, 395, 396, 402, 409, 410,477, 914, 916, 935, 968, 972, 974

Latvian Language Law (1999), 196Latvian national movement, 194, 198Laut, Jens Peter, 267, 476law, uniformity of, 25Lazarus, Moritz (1824–1903), 46, 336Le Page, Robert Brock, 25League of Nations, 31, 173, 338, 577, 592,

594, 603, 670, 753, 922–3, 925, 930,931, 959

minorities treaties system, 670, 986Lehrgebäude der böhmischen Sprache

(Learning System of the BohemianLanguage, Prague), 491

Lehr-Spławinski, Tadeusz (1891–1965),´255, 299, 573, 606, 932, 933

Leisering, Walter, 98Lekhitic (Polish), 416, 417Lekhito-Polish, 417Lemberg, Hans, 155, 375, 383, 389, 392,

440, 444, 486, 615, 792, 981Lemkian, 628, 890

see also RusynLemkos (Galician Rusyns), 14, 584,

615, 618, 635–9, 662, 686, 732, 890–1,930, 939

Lemtsiugova, V P, 173Lemtsiuhov, V P, 171Lencek, Rado, 299Lendle, O C, 421Lenin, Vladimir Ilyich (1870–1924), 30,

569, 659, 851, 920–1, 936, 961(n. 36)Leopold II (r. 1790–1792), Emperor, 105,

433, 451, 484, 491Łesiów, Michał, 157Leszczynski, Rafał, 306´Lettrich, Jozef, 525, 549, 557, 559, 722,

829, 842, 853, 858Lëtzebuergesch (see Luxemburgish)Leuschner, Torsten, 1, 11, 46, 49Levoca (Leutschau, Lewocza, L˝ˇ ocse), 522,˝

537, 543, 868, 919Lewaszkiewicz, Tadeusz, 384, 480Lewis, Bernard, 263, 269, 970lex Grabski, 591lexicography, 101, 326, 407, 461, 515,

763, 846, 899Lexicon Latino-Polonicum (The Latin-Polish

Dictionary, 1564, Königsberg[Kaliningrad]), 110, 478

Lexicon recentis Latinitatis (Dictionary ofRecent Latin, 1992–1997, Vatican), 98

1088 Index

Lexicon symphonum (The Symphonia ofWords, 1537 and 1544, Basle), 101

Linde, Samuel Bogumił (1771–1847),116–17, 185, 294, 375, 377–9, 381,438, 460, 477, 478, 604, 796,960(n.23), 980

Linek, Bernard, 573, 593, 617, 626lingua adamica, 46lingua latina, 94lingua romana, 94linguarum in genere, tum Polonicae seorsim

praestantia et utilitate oratio, De (OnLanguage in General, Including theDefence of the Polish Language and aSpeech on Its Usefulness, 1589,Gdansk), 111

linguas francas, 7, 965linguistics, 33, 34, 35, 46, 83, 149, 175,

224, 405, 439, 476, 532, 546, 563,624, 643, 760, 762, 763, 764, 778,785, 796, 845, 849, 859, 860–1, 877,878–81, 899, 900, 932, 934, 955, 968

development, early, 6–9, 63–4engineering, 210homogenization, German, 48, 341, 410,

893, 979marxist, 778, 785, 878–80and nations/nation-states, 51–6see also Language

lingwe uniwersala (see Esperanto)Linhart, Anton Tomaž (1756–1795),

294, 295Lins, Ulrich, 340, 393List, Eveline, 86Liszka, József, 465, 904literacy, 38

Albanian, 244Armenian, 323, 326Cyrillic-based, 87, 471Czech, 723Greek, 66, 141Hebrew, 307Hungary, 699mass, 8, 25, 38, 39, 43, 147Muscovy, 160Polish, 621Prussia, 388rates, 145–8Roma, 331Russian, 164, 980(n.12)Ruthenian, 154Slavophone, 532

Slovenia, 296Sorbian, 303Soviet Union, 942see also illiteracy

Literary Agreement, Vienna, (1850), 225,229, 230, 460, 850

literatureCzech, 493, 514Ladino, 318, 319, 320Latin, 92Magyar, 437, 438Polish, 415Romani, 330Slovak, 512, 520, 530, 533, 546, 731,

841, 985(n.13)Slovjak, 821Sorbian, 304, 305Ukrainian, 174, 175Yiddish, 312

Lithuania, 70declaration of independence, 54, 58,

298, 721, 725, 738, 743, 817Grand Duchy of, relgious/language

changes, 15, 16, 17, 70, 71, 72, 88,89, 101, 110, 111, 112, 118, 126,137, 151, 152, 153, 154–9, 162, 163,164, 165, 168, 171, 172, 175, 180,181, 182, 183, 185, 186, 187, 188,190, 271, 272, 307, 313, 368, 373,374, 382, 384, 385, 388, 395, 403,408, 410, 439, 465, 473, 482, 598,647, 744, 907, 929, 971, 972, 973

origins of name, 181–2Lithuanian, 180, 183, 185, 186, 395

dialects/vernaculars, 191, 973(n.17)as official language, 188reintroduction, Latin script, 179, 210,

402, 409standard, 182, 184, 185, 186, 187,

188, 190as state language, Soviet republics, 49,

51, 174, 179, 190, 390, 399, 404,411, 456, 460, 542, 578, 589, 591,596, 622, 638, 670, 710, 747, 757,794, 803, 838, 886, 888, 897,898, 940

see also SamogitianLithuanianization, of the Vilnius area, 189Lithuanians, pagan, 15‘Little German nation-state’, 18, 365

see also KleindeutschlandLittle Russia, 166

Index 1089

Little Russian (see Ukrainian)Litván, György, 656Liulevicius, Vejas Gabriel, 50, 411Livingstone, Elizabeth A, 242Livonia, 16, 65, 74, 113, 115, 163, 181,

187, 193–4, 196–9, 271, 344, 395,974(n.21)

Livonian, 16, 65, 181, 187, 193, 197,198, 271

Livonian Order, State of the, 16, 187, 193,197, 271

Lizisowa, Maria Teresa, 157, 997Ljubljana (Laibach), 291, 292–3, 294,

295–298Locke, John (1632–1704), 44, 46Łodzinski, Sławomir, 636, 639, 895´Löhner, Ludwig von (1812–1852), 498,

500, 509, 513Lomonosov, Mikhail, 154, 161, 162, 163,

224, 280, 325London, 12, 44, 46, 47, 80, 162, 252, 260,

283, 332, 337, 403, 406, 435, 487,610, 623, 721, 754, 771, 813, 838,857, 921, 978(n.53)

Loos, Josef (1839–1878), 563, 846Łopacinski, Hieronim (1860–1906),´

405Loránd, Benk, 627, 705, 945Lorincze, Lajos (1915–1993), 703˝Lorinczy, Éva, 705, 947˝Lorraine, 77, 78Łos, Jan, 405, 606´Losik, Anton, 173, 616Louis (Lajos) I, King (r. 1342–1382), 102,

121, 337, 431, 817Low German, 27, 28, 33, 74, 75, 77, 80,

83, 84, 85, 477, 967, 986Lowenthal, David, 645Lower Saxonian, 73–4, 75–6, 79–80, 85Loza, Iurii, 403Lublin, 16, 146, 278, 379, 408–10, 576,

588, 590, 594, 604, 616, 617, 621,628, 641, 689, 712

Luci´ˇ c, Radovan, 144´Ludanyi, Andrew, 672, 696, 710Luft, Robert, 495, 722Lukacs, John, 464Lukashenka, Aleksandr, 174Łukowski, Jerzy, 411Lusatia, 14, 15, 27, 102, 113, 218, 290,

301–3, 305, 306, 417, 478, 482, 729,730, 773, 806

Lower Lusatia, 302–3, 482Upper Lusatia, 302, 303, 482

Luther, Martin (1483–1546), 39, 79,88, 343

Lutheran faith, 194Luther’s German, 82, 182, 292, 304,

312, 333Lutsk (Łuck, Luzk), 309Luxembourg, 5, 12, 56, 59, 76–7, 85, 124,

644, 926, 961, 967Luxemburg, House of, 15, 30, 77, 503Luxemburgish (see Lëtzebuergesch)Lviv (Lemberg, Lvov, Lwów), 72, 81, 119,

154, 155, 177, 178, 369, 373, 375,383, 389, 392, 401, 403, 411, 414,429, 440, 444, 486, 502, 588, 590,601, 604, 607, 613, 615, 617, 621,625, 677, 758, 792, 970(n.5), 971(n.9)

Lyer, Stanislav, 785, 879, 945Lynam, Edward W, 345Łysohorsky, Óndra (Goj, Erwín), 728, 730

see also Lachia, LachianLyzanec, Petro M, 705, 947

McArthur, Tom, 86, 979McCarthy, Justin, 255, 264, 270, 275,

285, 327Macedonia, 246–7, 250, 251, 253, 254,

976(n.34)see also Former Yugoslav Republic of

Macedonia (FYROM)Macedonian, 248, 249, 250, 253, 975(n.30)Macedonian cultural society, 250Macedonian national movement, 246,

250, 254Macedonian, Old, 28, 252, 287Machek, Václav, 627, 763, 786, 878,

881, 945Macica Serbska, 304´McLuhan, Marshall, 25McMillin, Arnold B, 157, 167, 170, 171,

172, 173, 175, 398Maczak, Antoni, 388, 416, 587aaMaczy ´aa nski, Jan (1520–1584), 110, 478´Mad’arsko, 484, 524, 562, 566, 646, 846

see also HungaryMad’arsko-ˇeskoˇ -slovenský a

slovensko-cesko-mad’arský techníckýˇslovník (Magyar-Czech-Slovak andSlovak-Czech-Magyar TechnicalDictionary, 1964, Bratislava), 566, 898

Magaš, Branka, 233

1090 Index

Magdeburg, 74, 75, 80, 84Magocsi, Paul Robert, 13Magyar

culture, 441, 465discrimination against, 887identity card, 709, 894, 895, 989minorities, 610, 670, 671, 675, 677, 679,

681, 683, 693, 694, 698, 701, 704,706, 709–11, 715, 725, 774, 852,889, 894, 895, 923, 926, 931, 940,949, 951

nation, 130, 368, 440, 446, 447–8, 452,454, 457–9, 461, 462, 466, 500, 539,540, 543, 649, 650, 679, 680, 686,706, 806, 809, 887, 906–11, 926,947, 952, 981

nation-state, 457, 910origin of name, 646see also Magyars

Magyar, 65, 121, 211, 473, 915–16alphabet, 67Chancery, 121, 123, 124decline of, 669–70EU official language, 902in Hungary, 442, 460, 909, 961(n.34)languages influencing, 128lexicography, 461literacy, 127as official language, 445, 461, 649, 651,

767, 901origins of, 38, 124, 157, 201. 224, 228,

418, 437, 473, 475–6, 526, 641,642, 805

orthography, 122, 123, 124, 207, 239,299, 423, 442, 465, 466, 467, 468,469, 530, 532, 545, 703, 821, 985

purifying, 48, 96, 261, 282, 297, 515,759, 881

rise of, 130as sociolect, 111, 119, 369, 370, 597,

598, 701standard, 122, 128, 441, 442, 677, 679,

680, 681, 701, 703, 704vernaculars, 126, 139, 465, 532as written language, 139, 293, 438,

474, 947Magyar Autonomous Region (in

Romania), 694, 891, 937Magyar encyclopaedia (Hungarian

Encyclopedia, 1653, Utrecht), 128

Magyar értelmezo kéziszótár (The ShortExplanatory Dictionary of Magyar,1972, Budapest), 704

Magyar etymológiai szótár (EtymologicalDictionary of the Magyar Language,1914–, Budapest), 461, 517, 527, 681,764, 917, 932

Magyar Grammatikátska (The SmallGrammar of Magyar, 1645, Karlsburg[Alba Iulia]), 123, 124

Magyar helyesírás és szóragasztás fobbszabályai (The Significant Rules ofMagyar Orthography and Declension,1832), 442

Magyar helyesírás szabályai, A (ThePrinciples of Magyar Orthography andGrammar, 1954, Budapest), 703, 704

Magyar Hírmandó (newspaper) (HungarianCourier, 1780–1788), 129, 439

Magyar identity card, 709, 710, 894,895, 989

Magyar Katolikus Lexikon (The MagyarCatholic Lexicon, 1993–, Budapest),712, 950

Magyar Királyság (Kingdom ofHungary), 648

Magyar language movement, 440Magyar Múzeum (The Magyar Museum),

439, 950Magyar Nagylexikon (The Great Magyar

Lexicon, 1993–2004, Budapest),712, 950

Magyar nyelv értelmezo szótára, A (TheExplanatory Dictionary of the MagyarLanguage, 1959–1962, Budapest), 625,703, 711

Magyar nyelv rendszere, A (The System ofthe Magyar Language, 1844), 442

Magyar nyelv szótára, A (The Dictionary ofthe Magyar Language, 1862–1874,Pest), 130, 460, 461, 680, 681, 682,704, 909, 913, 917, 932

Magyar nyelv történeti-etimológiai szótára(The Historical-EtymologicalDictionary of the Magyar Language,1967–1976, Budapest), 627, 705

Magyar nyelvhelyesség (How to Write andSpeak Correctly in Magyar, 1957,Budapest), 703

Magyar Nyelvi Bizottság (Commission forthe Magyar Language, Hungary), 460

Index 1091

Magyar Nyelv˝r (periodical) (The Guardianof the Magyar Language), 460,680, 703

Magyar nyelvtörténeti szótár (The HistoricalDictionary of the Magyar Language),460, 627, 680

Magyar nyelvújítás szótára, A (Dictionary ofthe Magyar Language Reform,1902–1908, Budapest), 462, 764, 917

Magyar nyelvvédo könyv˝ (Purification Bookof the Magyar Language, 1938–1939,Budapest), 681

Magyar szófejt˝ szótárt˝t (MagyarEtymological Dictionary, Budapest),130, 460, 680, 704

magyar szókészlet finnugor elemei, A (TheFinno-Ugric Elements in the MagyarLexical Stock, 1967–1978, Budapest),705

Magyar tájszótár (Dictionary of the MagyarDialects, Budapest, 1893–1901), 461,517, 705, 947

Magyarization, 50, 146, 228, 236, 186,447–9, 452–3, 458, 459, 462–72, 474,480, 527, 529, 531, 539–40, 543–4,547, 549, 553–6, 559–61, 652, 654,656, 663, 668, 684, 685, 687, 699,708, 723, 734, 742, 745, 810, 811,812, 826, 829, 830, 839, 840, 842,844, 856, 893, 909, 911, 946, 986

of Hungary’s Slavs, 536, 542, 543, 544opposition to, 228, 447, 452, 458, 466,

553, 840Slovak, 527, 529, 531, 539, 543, 544,

547, 549, 554, 555, 556, 560, 561success of, 458–9

Magyarország, 484, 486, 645, 647, 648,651, 652, 660, 661, 669, 676, 677,678, 679, 684, 688, 689, 694, 989

see also HungaryMagyarosan (periodical) (In Proper Magyar

[literally, In a Magyar Way],1932–1943), 681, 682

Magyars, 3, 14, 15, 63, 67, 68, 87, 120,121, 127, 128, 142, 146, 167, 202,203, 207, 210, 211, 217, 218, 329,349, 391, 441, 444–8, 450, 451, 453–5,457–9, 462, 465, 466, 473–6, 479, 484,496, 499, 500, 503, 507, 513, 515, 521,523–6, 529, 540, 542, 544, 548, 549,550, 552, 559, 569, 631, 645, 646, 649,650, 652–3, 655, 656, 659, 661, 662,

665, 666, 668, 669, 670–80, 682–3,685–8, 690–9, 701, 706–11, 714–15,717, 719, 721, 733, 736, 739–40, 749,750, 753–6, 765, 775, 780,–3, 790,793, 797, 798, 809, 810, 812, 813,814–20, 822–3, 829–31, 833, 836, 838,839, 841, 852, 854–6, 862–3, 868–71,873, 877, 885, 887, 889, 890, 891,892, 893–4, 903, 906–7, 912, 916, 917,918, 923, 924, 937,. 939, 940, 945–7,952, 965, 967, 970, 974, 983, 989, 990

national poet of, 454, 465, 918, 973persecution of, 71, 133, 142, 283, 307,

331, 415, 512, 586, 603, 610, 692,693, 696, 697, 770, 863, 864,866, 871

see also MagyarMagyarság (Magyardom), 438Mährens allgemeine Geschichte (General

History of Moravia, 1860–1888, Brünn[Brno]), 479

Maior, Petru (1761–1821), 452Majewicz, Alfred F, 27, 65, 269, 309, 966Major, Mark Imre, 656, 661Majtán, Milan, 899, 948Maksimiuk, Jan, 192Mala ceskoslovenská encyklopedieˇ (The Small

Czechoslovak Encyclopedia,1984–1987, Prague), 627, 786

Malá encyklopédia Slovenska (The LittleEncyclopedia of Slovakia, 1887,Bratislava), 883

Małopolska, 109, 117–18, 131, 477, 579,651–2

Maltese, 59, 963(n.53)Mały słownik jezyka polskiegoee (The Small

Dictionary of the Polish Language,1968, Warsaw, 625

Malý staroceský slovníkˇ (The Little OldCzech Dictionary, 1979, Prague), 786

Mandelbaum, David, 905Mandys, Pavel, 794, 899Mannová, Elena, 456, 525Manouche (‘human being,’ ‘man’), 329

see also RomaManowiecki, Piotr, 795Maramures (Máramaros), 211, 470¸Maria Theresa (Habsburg, r. 1740–1780),

103–4, 106, 128, 375, 383, 434, 470,484, 487, 490, 730

Marína (poem), 547Markowski, Andrzej, 41, 48, 641, 642, 643

1092 Index

Martel, Antoine, 119, 157, 979Martin (Sankt Martin, Turócszentmárton,

Turciansky Svätý Martin), 877, 886–7Martin Declaration, (1918), 803, 817, 827,

828, 835Martin, Bernhard, 406Martin, Terry, 41, 52, 214, 266, 269, 316,

335, 359, 575Martinovic, Dušan J., 129, 130, 152, 354,

433, 435, 440, 551Martinovics conspiracy, (1794–1795), 129,

130, 433, 435Martinovics, Ignatius, Father (1755–1795),

129, 130, 433, 435, 440, 551martinský úzus (Martin usage), 562, 843,

844, 845, 848, 850Martynau, V U, 120Marushiakova, Elena, 335, 974, 978Marx, Karl (1818–1883), 30, 500, 992(n.2)marxist linguistic conferences, 778Marxism and the National Question, 575,

659, 920Masaryk, Tomáš Garrigue (1850–1837),

493, 505, 511, 512, 514, 521, 554,557, 558, 562, 719, 721, 722, 730,735–6, 747, 748, 750, 751, 753, 757,758, 771, 773, 810, 812–13, 817, 823,827, 828, 833, 834, 836, 837, 842,844, 851, 918, 984, 990

Masarykuv slovník naucný (MasarykScientific Dictionary: A people’sencyclopedia of general information,1925–1933, Prague), 514, 761

Mashkit font (Hebrew script), 311Masica Serbska (Sorbian Cultural

Organization), 304see also Sorbian

Massoch, S., 450Mat’ovcík, Augustín, 775Matica crnogorska (Montenegrin Cultural

Society), 234see also Montenegrin

Matica slovenská (Slovak CulturalOrganization), 462, 547, 552, 553–4,557, 560, 562, 565, 566, 778, 810,822, 833, 835, 842–6, 849, 859, 860,865, 877, 878, 879, 887, 933, 986,(n.14), 991

see also SlovakMatice ceska (Czech Cultural

Organization), 444, 492see also Czech

Matice moravská (Moravian CulturalOrganization), 501, 502

see also Czech, MoravianMatice opavská (Opava Cultural

Organization), 502see also Czech, Slunzakian

Matice osvety lidové pro Tešínsko(Educational Organization forTešín/Teschen Silesia), 502ˇ

see also Czech, SlunzakianMatoš, Antun Gustav (1873–1914), 237Matras, Yaron, 335Matúš Cák Trenciansky a jeho vláda na

Slovensku (Matúš Cák Trencianskyand His Rule in Slovakia, 1938,Prague), 815

Mauro, Tullio de, 5Maximos of Gallipoli, 260Maxwell, Alexander, 233, 464, 476, 522,

535, 537, 541, 545, 547, 550–1, 557,562, 567, 956(n.1)

Mayenowa, Maria Renata (1910–1988),384, 627, 947

Mazovia, 15, 17, 118, 477, 578–9Mazower, Mark, 255, 263, 320Mazuria, 183, 350, 578, 579, 582, 584,

617, 618, 619Mazurian, 183, 348, 350, 578, 579,

582, 609Mazurs, 14, 348, 578–81, 618ff, 775,

930, 940Mažvydas, Martynas (1510–1563), 181Mazzini, Giuseppe (1805–1872), 30, 31MDP (Magyar Dolgozók Pártja) (MDP,

Hungarian Workers’ Party), 691, 692Meciar, Vladimir, 709, 788, 883, 884, 949media, mass, 6, 9, 13, 301, 310, 331, 622,

631, 698, 701, 759, 779, 794, 799,800, 801, 876, 882, 883, 898, 941, 953

Mediterranean Sea, 92Megleno-Romanians, 202, 210, 216Meillet, Antoine, 493Meissen (Upper Saxonian), 76, 79,

82, 123Mekhitarist congregation, 324Melich, János, 461, 517, 527, 681, 917, 932Melnychuk, O S, 120, 646Memelland, 188, 189Memorandum of the Slovak Nation,

551, 912Menges, Karl H, 275

Index 1093

Mensk/Minsk (Minsk), 19, 42, 55, 58, 72,´165, 173, 314, 373, 403, 411, 412,415, 577, 971(n.7)

Mentzel, Peter, 143, 513Menze, Ernest A, 437, 994Menzel, Wolfgang, 499Mertelsmann, Olaf, 190, 201, 972Mészáros, István, 688methode dejepisu Slovenska, O (article) (On

the Methodology of SlovakHistoriography, 1881), 814

Meyer, Joseph (1796–1856), 407Mezihorák, František, 766, 855Micátek, L’udovít Al, 847–8ˇMichalác, Jozef, 882ˇMichna, Ewa, 584Mickiewicz, Adam (1798–1855), 172, 186,

191, 382, 441, 465, 473, 597, 644,918, 973

middle class, 39, 437, 446, 448, 508, 524,598, 614, 961

Middle East, the, 10, 93, 244, 307, 341,363, 475

Middle German literary language, seeUpper Saxonian (Meissen)

migration, mass, Germans from Poland,271, 311, 585, 967

Miklowicz, Anton, 287Mikołajczak, Aleksander Wojciech, 98,

114, 371, 598Mikusinska, Aldona, 64–5, 275, 287, 299,´

334, 674Milardovic, An´ delko, 13––

Millennium of the Magyar conquest ofHungary, 458

Milner-Gulland, Robin, 167Miloradic, Mate Merši (1850–1928), 237´Miloševic, Slobodan, 697, 710´Miłosz, Czesław, 598, 623Milosz, Oscar, 598Minahan, James, 24minorities

acts on, 987(n.14)national, 5, 26, 36, 52, 305, 412, 447,

455, 456, 458–9, 570–1, 573, 58,599, 608, 628, 633, 634, 635–9, 654,662, 683–4, 686, 687, 738, 747, 781,789, 798, 838, 925, 939, 940, 949,951, 987

treaties, 52, 587, 670, 792, 986(n.3)Miodek, Jan, 632Miodynski, Lech, 255´

Mirga, Andrzej, 335Misztal, Jan, 619Mitrofanova, Anastasia V, 360Mitteleuropa, 2, 12, 920, 921, 958(n.8)Mitteleuropa (1915, Berlin)Mitzka, Walther, 406Mladenovic, Aleksandar, 222´Mluvnica jazyka slovenského (A Grammar of

the Slovak Language, 1864–1865,Budapest), 560

Mluvnice ceská pro školy stˇˇ rední a ústavytˇtucitelskéˇ (The Czech Grammar forSchools and Teachers’Colleges, 1890,Prague), 516, 759–60, 844

mobility, social/spatial, 7, 36, 38, 43, 128,210, 254, 305, 707, 808, 893

Mócsy, István, 661, 667, 734modernity, 43, 139, 141, 308, 317, 329,

349, 361, 439, 440, 447, 667, 725,805, 916

modernization, 39, 40, 41, 43, 104, 105,108, 113, 129, 144, 160, 162, 213,266, 274, 309, 313, 314, 346, 370,387, 390, 438, 439, 440, 532, 574,695, 700, 893, 908, 914, 980

Mohyla, Petro, Archimandrite (PetruMovila, Piotr Mohyła, 1596–1647),˘156

Mojdl, Lubor, 67, 70, 98, 242, 246, 327,356, 966, 967

Moldova, 4, 13, 18, 20, 21, 23, 27, 36, 54,55, 212, 213–15, 264, 269, 270, 352,353, 358, 362, 669, 969

see also Bessarabia; MoldaviaMoldavia, 203, 204, 205, 969(n.25)

see also Bessarabia; Moldova; RomaniaMoldovan, 23, 27, 33, 51, 55, 141, 201,

208, 211, 212, 213–14, 215, 230,269–70, 288, 352, 353, 358, 362,669, 976

see also MoldavianMoldavian, 51, 212, 213, 214, 270, 325,

346, 352, 353, 358, 658, 963see also Moldovan

Moldavian to Moldovan, 214Moldovan Autonomous Soviet Socialist

Republic (MASSR), 212Molisean Slavic, 237, 238Molnár, Albert Szenci (1574–1634), 121,

122, 127, 128, 433, 453, 456, 459,462, 465, 476, 549, 656, 661, 662,667, 688, 690, 693, 701

1094 Index

Molnár, Miklós, 121, 433, 453, 456, 459,462, 465, 476, 549, 656, 661–2, 667,668, 693, 701

Monarchia jövoje és a Dunai EgyesültÁllamok, A (The Future of theMonarchy and the United States ofDanubia, 1918, Budapest), 654

Mongol campaigns in Central Europe(1236–1242), 15

Mønnesland, Svein, 677, 691, 698monolingualism, of state administration,

41, 60, 131, 310, 438, 686, 768, 851,856, 858, 888

Montenegrin, 14, 37, 53, 54, 58, 82, 144,217, 222, 224, 227, 229, 230, 232,233, 234, 235, 236, 251, 265, 340,353, 467, 657, 974, 976

Montenegrin Language, The, 54, 144,234, 235

Montenegro, xiv, 4, 13, 18, 20ff, 37, 48,50, 53ff, 58, 144, 151, 209, 220, 222,224, 225–7, 229, 230, 231, 232, 233–5,243, 245–6, 278, 283, 332, 353–4, 358,359, 363, 657, 718, 850, 958(n.15),971(n.3)

see also Serbia-MontenegroMorava, 218, 485, 501Moravia, 15, 19–20, 50–1, 64, 68–70, 80,

87, 100–8, 114, 117, 131–7, 144–5,158, 205, 218, 249, 296, 301, 368, 391,401, 408, 418, 421–2, 448, 450, 455,457, 463, 478–9, 482–94, 497–517,526–30, 536–7, 540, 544–5, 554, 557,558, 560, 569, 596, 602, 610, 642,657, 662, 665, 667, 674, 715–16, 719,720, 726, 728–30, 734, 739, 741, 743,751–3, 756, 758–9, 762, 765–6, 768,770–1, 773, 776–8, 782, 788, 790–1,795, 799–800, 806–11, 814–16, 819,834, 837–8, 843, 853–4, 859, 869, 883,885, 887, 902, 910, 912–13, 915, 925,928, 935, 954, 966(n.7), 983(nn.3, 6)

Moravian, 489Moravians, 105, 293, 401, 443, 476, 478,

481, 485, 489, 496, 497, 501, 506, 526,533, 540, 543, 716, 727, 729, 750, 751,790, 791, 792, 800, 801, 814, 816,830, 834, 853, 887, 889, 892, 895, 906

see also MorawecsMoravská národní strana (Moravian

National Party), 788

Morawecs, 14, 348, 727, 729, 739, 741,748, 824, 990(n.5)

see also MoraviansMore, Thomas (1478–1538), 95Morison, Stanley, 343–4Moritsch, Andreas, 671Moscow, 20–2, 27, 81–2, 89, 151, 154, 159,

160–2, 164–5, 172–3, 177, 178, 185,189, 193, 212–14, 247, 251, 266, 268,270, 273, 275, 279, 305, 315, 325, 331,334, 336, 350, 354, 356, 372, 377,381, 387, 408, 412, 415, 478, 550,570, 586, 591, 594, 603, 610, 611,613, 614, 616–17, 619, 630, 633, 666,687, 689–95, 699–701, 706–7, 728,771–5, 777–9, 787, 857–8, 861, 866,873, 877, 930, 935–9, 953, 956(n.3),972(n.12), 977(n.46), 991(nn.12, 13)

Moscow University, 161Moszynski, Leszek, 86, 100, 157, 255, 279Motýl, Ivan, 801, 976, 977Mountain Wreath, The

(Montenegrin/Serbian epic poem),224, 234

Mróz, Lech, 335, 424MSzMP (Magyar Szocialista Munkáspárt)

(Hungarian Socialist Workers’Party), 692

Mukachevo (Mukacevo, Munkács,Munkatsch), 656, 736

Mulih, Juraj (1694–1754), 237Muller, Henri F, 152Müller, Stanisław (1786–1847), 382multilingualism, Hungary, 50, 465, 903multilingualism/multiethnicity, 6, 893Munich, 84, 610, 665, 754, 764, 771–2,

837, 872, 883, 925Munich Agreement (1938), 610, 665, 754,

764, 771, 772, 837, 872, 925Muntenia (see Walachia)Münz, Teodor, 853Murádin, László, 705, 947Muscovian, 89, 152, 159–60, 164, 172,

177, 478see also Russian

Muscovy, 17, 82, 113–15, 140, 147, 151–2,154–6, 158–60, 163–6, 168, 193, 219,220, 252, 276, 278, 328, 342, 350–1,478, 970(n.2), 973(n.19), 987(n.9)

Mušicki, Lukijan (1777–1837), 223Musil, Jirí, 756, 777, 784, 790, 869, 896

Index 1095

Muzeálna slovenská spolecnost’ (SlovakˇMuseum Association), 554

MZO (Ministerstwo Ziem Odzyskanych)(Ministry of the Recovered Territories,Poland), 620

Nabert, Heinrich, 86, 502Nadson, Aleksandr, 141Nagodba (Croatia, 1868), 457, 460, 464,

553, 652, 667, 670, 717, 742Nagy, Gábor Tolcsavi, 424Nagy, Imre (1896–1958), 692, 693,

988(n.3)Nagy, Pál Beregszászy (1750–1828), 475Nakhichevan, 322, 363Napoleonic Wars (1805–1807), 17, 45, 47,

365, 377, 379, 381, 383, 384, 433,434, 439, 448

Nárecja slovenskuo alebo potreba písaˇˇ nje vˇtomto nárecjeˇ (The Slovak Dialect andthe Need to Write in This Dialect,1846, Preßburg [Bratislava]), 450, 545

Národní listy (National Newspaper), 507národní obrození, 495národních pisních a povestech plemenˇ

slovanských, O (On National Songsand Stories of the Slavic Tribes, 1852,Prague), 550

Národnie noviny (newspaper), 552, 553, 562Národnie Zpiewanky ˇili písnˇˇ svˇ etskéˇ

(National [Folk], or Secular Songs,1834–1835, Buda), 538

Narutowicz, Gabriel (1865–1922), 587Narys istorii ukrainskoi movy (Outline of the

Ukrainian Language, 1927, Kiev[Kyiv]), 527, 987

Naša zastava (Our Opinion, 1907–1918,Eperjes [Prešov]), 821

Naše ˇeˇˇ c, 516, 517, 567, 757, 760, 761,971

Naše úrední ˇˇ ceštinaˇ (periodical) (Our OfficeCzech, 1921–1933), 761

Nasha niva (periodical) (Our Land),170, 174

nationdefinition of, 32, 116, 370–1, 462, 540,

541, 805, 839, 889linguistic definition of, 805spirit of, 46

National and Ethnic Minority Rights Act(1993, Hungary), 708

nation of God’s warriors, 504

nation/language, similarities, 23–4, 27, 28,47, 478, 540, 565, 723, 738, 811

National Casino, 441national character/consciousness, 46, 571,

748, 895National Council of the Czech Lands,

512–13, 557, 813National Council, Hungary (1918),

653, 657National House of Prosvita, 747national language, non-speakers of, 52national rehabilitation, 618, 775national verification, 618, 775National Yiddish Book Center, 316nationalism, 24, 31, 42, 44, 908, 962 (n.41)

Armenian, 321, 326Belarusian, 357, 403, 616Bulgarian, 249, 278–80, 282, 324and communism, 920Croatian, 444, 467, 663Czech, 492, 496, 498, 500, 501, 807ethnolinguistically-defined, 909French, 42, 959German, 18, 47, 48, 49, 56, 83, 84, 108,

345, 390, 403, 405, 453, 499, 501,529, 906, 961

Hungarian civic, 466Jewish, 49, 79, 310, 313, 326, 333, 335,

402, 596–7, 977and language, 515, 931Lithuanian, 183, 185, 186, 401, 818Magyar, 125, 130, 225, 441, 446, 447,

452, 454, 458, 463, 472, 475, 524,553, 649, 652, 668, 680, 685, 716,806, 905, 906, 909, 911, 981

Polish, 377, 392, 403, 415–16, 502, 574,581, 589, 594, 599, 604, 633, 649,651, 830, 924

Roma, 332Romanian, 48, 139, 207, 208, 452,

539, 556Russian, 356, 909, 937, 980Serbian, 227, 697, 717Slovak, 131, 349, 449, 450, 466, 470,

479, 480, 485, 519, 522, 524, 526,529, 539, 541, 546, 547, 548, 550,552, 556, 562, 733, 800, 805–8,809–12, 814, 818, 820, 821, 822,842, 862, 887, 888, 910, 911, 913,984, 986, 992

1096 Index

nationalism – continuedSlovenian, 296, 467as statehood legitimization, 24, 31, 42,

105, 390, 399, 529, 569, 571, 572,575, 651, 699, 922

Turkish, 265, 267Ukrainian, 177, 400–1, 890White Ruthenian (Belarusian), 410

Nationality Law (Hungary, 1868), 460,461, 463, 555, 654, 668, 684, 742, 747

nationality, ethnically construed, 42Nationallexicon (‘National Dictionary,’

Prague, 1788), 106nation-building, 10, 117, 341, 447, 448,

466, 472, 648, 662, 711, 805, 920,923, 939, 961

Nations and Nationalism (1983,Cambridge), 44

nations, ethnic stateless, 962(n.41)nation-states

civic/ethnic, 26, 42, 54, 574, 575, 916England, as first, 805, 959(n.18)ethnolinguistic, 6, 50, 51, 54, 57, 59, 60,

61, 238, 330, 332, 362, 465, 569,570, 598, 806, 919, 921, 926, 941,948, 964, 993

globalization, 24, 43, 904new, 2, 18, 19, 36, 52, 58, 411, 571, 575,

576, 582, 587, 761, 886, 893, 923NATO, 3, 22, 23, 240, 253, 630, 709, 713,

789, 888, 894, 902, 949, 950Nauka reci slovenskej (Learning to Read and

Write the Slovak Language, 1846,Preßburg [Bratislava]), 450, 545

Naukove tovarystvo imeny Shevchenka(Shevchenko Society of Sciences),401, 613

Naumann, Friedrich (1860–1919), 12návrhu na nové Pravidlá slovenského

pravopisu, O (On the Project of theNew Principles of Slovak Orthographyand Correct Writing, 1952, Martin),757, 835, 859, 878, 899

Naylor, Kenneth E., 222, 225, 226,228, 231

Nazor, Vladimir (1876–1949), 237Necas, Jaroslav (1913–1988), 565, 780Nedilia (weekly) (Sunday), 745Nehring, W, 418Nekvapil, Jirí, 792, 793Neman (Niemen), 165, 185Nemcova, Božena (1820–1862), 918ˇ

NemeckoNˇN -ceský slovník vedeckého názvoslovípro gymnasia a reálné školy/Deutsch-böhmisches Wörterbuch derwissenschaftlichen Terminologie fürGymnasien und Realschulen (TheGerman-Czech Dictionary ofScientific Terminology for SecondarySchools, 1853, Prague), 494, 513–14

Nemes, Robert, 476német, 126, 448, 967Németh, Julius, 126nemzeti államok kialakulása és a nemzetiségi

kérdés, A (The Evolution ofNation-States and the NationalityQuestion, 1912, Budapest), 654

Nemzeti Sport (periodical) (NationalSport), 682

Nemzetiség (periodical) (Nationality), 447neo-absolutism, 456, 549, 551Neo-Latin, 95–6neologists, Magyar, 130, 440, 441,

442, 680Neo-Uniate Church, 140, 173, 602

see also Greek Catholic Church, UniateChurch

Neo-Uniate liturgy, 140Nép és Nyelv (periodical) (People and

Language, 1941–1943), 682Népünk és Nyelvünk (periodical) (Our

People and Our Language,1930–1939), 682

Neruda, Jan (1834–1891), 918Neudorfl, Marie L, 562Neue und Kurze Beschreibung des

Koenigreiches Ungarn (The New andBrief Description of the Kingdom ofHungary, 1664, Nuremberg), 544

Neustupný, J V, 103, 764New English Dictionary on Historical

Principles (1884–1928, Oxford), 84New Julfa, 322New York, 42, 314–16, 320, 566, 868newspapers

Arebica, 143, 232Belarusian, 174Biblictina, 449, 535, 560Bulgarian, 354Burgenland Croatian, 237Cracow, 400Czech, 106, 489, 491, 507, 897German-Russian, 409Ladino, 318

Index 1097

Lithuanian, 188Magyar, 129, 439, 440, 446Moldavian, 212Old Slovak, 541Polish, 641Russian, 160Ruthenia, Subcarpathian, 745Ruthenian (Rusyn), 391Serbian, 223Slaveno-Ruthenian, 390Slovak, 134, 449, 450, 546, 552, 835Slovenian, 294Slovjak, 821Sorbian, Upper, 304Walachian (Romanian), 452White Ruthenian (Belarusian), 395Yiddish, 312, 316

Nicholas I, Tsar (r.1825–1855), 384,385, 388

Nicholas II, Tsar (r.1894–1917), 398, 409Nicholas V, Pope (1447–1455), 343Niedersächsisch, 74Niedzwiedzki, Władysław, 397´Niemiecko-polski słownik wyrazów-

prawniczych i administracyjnych(German-Polish Dictionary of Legaland Administrative Vocabulary,1862), 405

Niezałatwiona Kwestia, Kwestya, Kwestyja,Kwestja ortograficzna (The UnresolvedOrthographic Question, 1890,Warsaw), 428

Nikcevi´ˇ c, Vojislav, 234´Nikon, Patriarch, 159Nitra (periodical), 131, 450, 546, 560, 567,

705, 751, 752, 834, 844, 845, 887Nitra (Neutra, Nyitra), 131, 450, 546, 560,

567, 705, 751–2, 834, 844, 845, 887Nitra Principality, 751, 752Nitsch, Kazimierz (1874–1858), 406, 416,

517, 606, 607, 609, 620, 626Njegoš, Petar II Petrovic (r. 1830–1851),´

224, 227, 234, 235Nolte, Claire E, 507Nomenclator (‘Dictionary,’ Prague,

1746–1768), 101, 106Nomenclator quadrilinguis (The

Four-Language[Czech-Latin-Greek-German]Dictionary, 1598, Prague), 101

Non-Aligned Movement, 328

normative isomorphism,language/nation/state, 29, 35, 51, 53,54, 56, 57, 60–1, 963

North German Confederation (1867), 365Northern Europe, 13, 194, 342, 958Northern German Confederation

(1867), 18Nouveau dictionnaire françois, allemand et

polonois/ Nowy dykcjonariusz to jestmownik polsko-francusko-niemiecki/Vollständiges deutsches undpolnisches Wörterbuch (The NewDictionary, consisting of theFrench-German-Polish part, thePolish-French-German part, and theGerman-Polish part, 1744–1772,Leipzig), 378

Novák, Karel, 764Novák, L’udovit, 527, 528, 859Nové vydání pravidel ˇeského pravopisuˇ .

Zpráva pro diskusi (The New Edition ofthe Rules of Czech Orthography: Anoutline for discussion, 1956,Prague), 760

November Uprising (1830–1831), 381,384, 386, 388, 389, 394, 395, 399

Novgorod, 158, 159, 971(n.4)Noví mad’arsko-slovenskí a

slovensko-mad’arskí slovníkˇ (NewMagyar-Slovak and Slovak-MagyarDictionary, 1848, Szarvas), 122, 128,461, 562, 704, 745, 846

Novi Sad (Neusatz, Ujvidék), 20, 226,229–31, 444, 470, 538, 657, 982(n.10)

Novi Sad Agreement (1954), 230, 231Nowa encyklopedia powszechna

(1995–1996), 640, 641, 650Nowak, Krzysztof, 503, 607Nowy elementarz polski (The New Polish

Primer, 1803, Breslau [Wrocław]), 379Nowy słownik ortograficzny PWN wraz z

zasadami pisowni i interpunkcji (ThePWN’s New Orthographic Dictionarywith the Principles of Spelling,Writing and Punctuation, 1996,Warsaw), 642

numerus clausus (anti-Semitism), 594–5,662, 664, 677, 685

numerus nullus (anti-Semitism), 595Nuremberg club (see Volapük, Esperanto)Nurmi, Ismo, 525

1098 Index

Nyelvmuvelésünk fobb kérdései (The MostSignificant Questions of Our LanguagePolitics, 1953, Budapest), 703

Nyelvmuvelo kézikönyv (The Handbook ofLanguage Cultivation, 1980–1985,Budapest), 704

Nyitra-vidéki magyar nyelvjárások atlasza,A (The Atlas of the Magyar Dialect inthe Nitra Region, 2004, Bratislava),705

pisowni polskiej, O (On Polish Spelling,1882, Warsaw), 427

O’Boyle, L, 575obecná ceština, 506–7, 642, 758–9,

800–1, 845see also Czech, spisovná ceština

obecná sleštino-moravština, 801Obradovic, Dositej (1739–1811), 223, 436Oder (Odra), 28, 45, 83, 85, 87, 289, 301,

302, 405, 617, 633, 773, 936, 938Oder-Neisse line, 28, 85, 405, 617, 633,

773, 936, 938Odesa (Odessa), 282, 388, 415ODS (Obcanská demokratická strana)

(Civic Democratic Party), 789Ogonowski, Jerzy, 379, 392, 398, 403, 406,

411, 586, 588, 589, 591, 593, 595–7,829, 832, 987, 990

Ogrodzinski, Wincenty, 379Ojczyzna-polszczyzna- (TV program)

(Fatherland—the PolishLanguage), 633

Okuka, Miloš, 28, 144, 226, 228, 233, 235,683, 829, 899, 986

Old Albanian script, 243Old Believers, 159, 637, 987Old Bulgarian, 28, 34, 68, 158, 204,

252, 280Old Church Slavonic, 28, 34–5, 39, 41,

68, 82, 99, 108, 112, 127, 131, 132,140, 143, 204, 218, 252, 276, 287,291, 294, 526, 961(n.29), 966(n.10)

as Old Slovenian, 35, 291, 294recensions of, 82, 140, 204, 219, 248

Old Czech, see Bible language (Biblictina)Old Czechs, 507, 508, 509, 513Old Slavic, 68, 128, 132, 218, 473, 859‘Old Slovak’, 35, 102, 131, 294, 469, 512,

526, 527, 528, 541, 547, 550–1, 560,752, 846

see also Bible language (Biblictina)

Olga of Greece, Queen (1851–1926), 261Olomouc (Olmütz), 490, 492, 507,

741, 783Oltenia (see Walachia)Ó-magyar olvasókönyv (Old Magyar Reader,

1929, Budapest), 681Ondrejovic, Slavomír, 832, 876one state/one nation, 9Ong, Walter, 149Oommen, T. K, 26Opitz, Martin (1597–1639), 45, 82Opole (Oppeln), 118, 577, 581, 619, 630,

634, 636Optát, Beneš, 100oratore, De (About Oratory, 55 BCE),

959(n.16)Orava/Orawa (Árva, Arwa), 578, 582–4,

609–11, 732–3, 774, 823–4, 828, 830,837, 854, 871

Oravcová, Marianna, 535Order of the Hospitallers of St Mary of the

Teutons, 15Orel, Vladimir, 242origine successoribusque Slavorum, De (On

the Origin of the Present-DaySlavdom, 1525, Venice), 478

Orgelbrand, Maurycy (1826–1904), 426Orgelbrand, Samuel (1810–1868), 407Orłos, Teresa Zofia, 110, 116, 424, 426,

481, 495Orłowski, Hubert, 581Ormis, Ján V, 450, 531, 540, 545, 991Országh, László, 625, 703, 704, 943Országh-Hviezdoslav, Pavol, 558Orthodox Church, 70, 73, 81, 87, 113,

153, 155, 156, 159, 162, 163, 164,170, 179, 184, 204, 212, 219, 220,223, 225, 227, 228, 249, 252, 256,259, 260, 261, 263, 277, 281, 282,310, 350, 351, 352, 353, 354, 356,359, 361, 385, 389, 394, 556, 585,586, 593, 594, 603, 610, 612, 616,668, 669, 737, 742, 863, 909, 937,975, 977, 980, 987

acceptance of printing, 155discrimination against, 159, 585,

594orthographia bohemica, De (On the Czech

Orthography, 1406), 100, 422Orthographia seu modus recte scribendi et

legendi polonicum idoma quamutilissimus (Orthography, or on the

Index 1099

Manner of Correct Writing andReading, with the Most Useful PolishExpressions, 1513), 423

Orthographia Vngarica (MagyarOrthography, 1538 and 1549,Cracow), 124

orthography, 428, 606orthologists, Magyar, 130, 440, 441,

442, 680Orzechowski, Marian, 103, 107, 486, 491,

493, 495Osadchenko, Ion, 353Ossolineum, 383, 384, 389, 392, 440,

625Ossolinski, Józef Maksymilian´

(1748–1826), 378, 383, 440, 625,960(n.23)

Ostler, Nicholas, 41, 961, 962, 964Ostrava (Ostrau), 582, 584, 610, 779, 801,

868, 925Ostrówka, Małgorzata, 71, 120, 181Ostrowski, Mieczysław, 150, 167Ostrowski, Wiktor, 167Osuský, Štefan (Stephen) (1889–1973),

519, 813Other(s)

Central Europe as, 4, 5Roma as, 330Slovaks as the, 724

Othodox Christianity, 28, 48, 64, 69, 88,101, 112, 127, 139, 142, 151, 153,159, 164, 169, 199, 200, 204, 216,220, 223, 224, 243, 251, 256, 310,324, 346, 359, 360, 388, 394, 396,417, 418, 431, 595, 655, 663, 737,783, 804, 822, 970, 980, 990

Ottoman (Old Turkish, Osmanlıca), 88,136, 259, 265, 273, 961(n.30)

Ottoman Empire, 5, 9, 16, 18, 41, 48, 51,81, 96, 121, 124–5, 128, 147, 158, 166,202, 205, 208–9, 220, 226, 241, 243,247, 249, 254, 256, 258–60, 262,264–6, 272, 277, 279, 281ff, 307,317–19, 322–5, 329, 353–4, 359–61,431ff, 450ff, 463, 467–8, 523, 532,717, 830, 876, 915, 922, 946,960(n.28), 961(n.30), 968(n.23),969(n.25), 972(n.2), 972(n.3),977(n.47), 982(n.10)

Ottuv slovnik naut˚t cnýˇ (Otto ScientificDictionary, 1888–1908, Prague),407–8, 514, 682, 761, 797

Otwinowska, Barbara, 480Ouredník, Patrik, 800, 801ˇOutlines of a Philosophy of the History of

Man (1800, London), 46, 435Overfield, James H, 576Oxford English Dictionary (1884–1928,

Oxford), 84, 264, 644, 786, 932

Pâclisanu, Zenobius, 669, 685¸Pact of Eternal Friendship, 666Pais, Dezso, 681˝Paisii (1722–1773), 278, 279Palacký, František (see Palacky, Franz), 31,

437, 453, 479–81, 489, 491, 493–4,497–500, 503–7, 512, 514, 537, 539,547–8, 717–18, 751, 809, 918, 983(n.2)

Palacky, Franz (see Palacký, František)Palickar, Stephen Joseph, 525Palkovic, Juraj (Protestant pastor)ˇ

(1769–1850), 519, 534, 535–40,542–4, 552, 911, 985(n.7)

Palkovic, Juraj (Catholic priest)ˇ(1763–1865), 534, 985(n.7)

Pallas nagy lexikona, A (Pallas GreatLexicon, 1893–1904, Budapest), 461,462, 917

Pallas, Peter Simon, 46, 133, 461, 462, 917Pallis, Alexander (1741–1811), 261Palmowski, Jan, 939‘pan,’ etymology of, 120PAN (Polska Akademia Nauk), 622, 624Pan Tadeusz (Polish epic poem), 172, 441Pan-European movement, 571Panochko, Mykhailo, 179Pan-Serbian identity, 224Pan-Slavic, 278, 489, 537, 540, 542, 550,

946, 949Pan-Slav Congress (see Slav Congress)Pan-Slavism, 167, 222, 225, 288, 381, 453,

460, 464, 476, 477, 478, 495, 512,537, 539, 541, 543, 544, 717, 718,719, 722, 745, 799, 847, 878, 945

Pan-Turanianism, 476, 946, 947Pannonia, 14, 63–4, 66–7, 474, 965, 966Panzer, Baldur, 100, 112Papánek, Juraj (1738–1802), 134, 436, 450,

479, 529, 814, 985Pápay, József, 681Papusza (Wajs, Bronisława, Poet), 334Paris, 27, 45, 59, 77, 80, 82–3, 96, 110,

235, 261, 266, 305, 316, 319, 325,338–40, 376–7, 403, 453, 461, 487,

1100 Index

512, 557, 584, 610, 623, 631, 658,689, 694, 696, 719, 721, 730–2, 736,754, 771, 813, 816, 821, 828, 888,893, 921–2, 979(nn.1, 7), 981(n.14)

Paris Peace Conference (1919), 27, 305,658, 922

Paris Peace Conference (1947), 696Páriz, Ferenc Pápai (1649–1716), 122Pascu, Stefan, 669Paška, Laco, 344, 349, 549Pasolini, Piere Paolo (1922–1975), 300Pastrnek, František (1853–1940), 519,

520, 762Patocka, Jan (1907–1977), 867patriarchal characteristics of Central

Europe, 901, 918patriarchates, 975(n.27), 978(n.47)patriotism of the nobility, 488patriotism, 43, 106, 108, 452, 465, 466,

488, 492, 496, 716, 806, 906Patten, Alan, 8, 959PAU (Polska Akademia Umiejetnosci,

Polish Academy of Sciences), 603–4,605, 606, 621, 624, 640

Paul I, Tsar (r.1796–1801), 375Paulician, 286, 303, 468, 469

see also BulgarianPaulicianism, 241Paulicians, 241, 286, 322, 468, 966Pauliny, Eugen, 528, 547, 879, 880Paulíny-Tóth, Viliam, 553, 554Pavlo, Buzuk, 443, 527Pázmány, Péter (1570–1637),

123, 128Peace of Westphalia (1648), 74peasants

Magyarophone, 454, 650Polish, 389, 400revolt, Walachian, 203, 451Slavophone, 202, 254, 286, 449, 807

Pec (´ Ipek), 256Pechány, Adolf, 564, 846, 847, 848Peciar, Štefan, 135, 535, 625, 778, 878,

879, 880, 881, 882, 883, 899, 900,913, 943

Pécs (Fünfkirchen), 134, 443, 529, 661,664, 677, 703

Pedaniuk, M, 356, 358Pedersen, Vald, 346Pelikán, Jan, 220, 222, 225, 228Peltzl, Franz Martin, 491Pennsylvania Dutch, 78

Pentateuch, the, 79, 271, 310, 312,318, 335

Perelman, Eliezer (see Ben Yehuda)perestroika, 942Persia, 27, 141, 258, 321–2, 325, 328, 475Persian (Farsi), 27, 59, 126, 141, 143, 233,

239, 258–9, 265–6, 267, 273–4, 320,322, 325, 328, 341, 418, 475,961(n.30), 961(n.35), 962(n.45), 963,965(n.5), 977, 982(n.10)

Pésci, Tamás, 122Pesikan, Mitar, 354Pest, see BudapestPeštbudínske vedomosti (newspaper), 552Pesti Hirlap (newspaper), 446Pete, I, 711Peter the Great, Tsar (r.1682–1725), 151,

161, 160, 164, 165, 193, 350, 351,356, 360, 745

Petofi, Sándor (1823–1849), 454, 465,815, 918

Petr, Jan, 348, 394, 417, 780, 847Petrarca, Francesco (1304–1374), 45, 95Petrarch, 95Petrine reforms, 160Petro, Peter, 156, 437, 450, 480, 529, 535,

537, 540, 545, 550, 547, 550, 557,559, 562, 705, 947

Petrov, Avvakum (1620–1682), 159Phanariot administration, 205, 206, 207,

247, 256, 258, 277Phillip II, Macedonia (382–336 BCE), 253philologists, Polish, 7, 65, 68, 133, 221,

252, 415, 416, 429, 516, 609, 620,632, 757, 942

Philotheus of Pskov, 151Piast dynasty, 15, 118Píc, Josef Ladislav (1847–1911), 814Picchio, Riccardo, 68, 157, 980Pichler, Tibor, 549Piłsudski, Bronisław (1866–1916), 412,

574, 576, 577, 587, 588, 591, 593,647, 656, 660, 748, 758, 851

Piłsudski, Józef (1867–1935), 412, 574,576, 577, 587, 588, 591, 593, 647,656, 660, 748, 758, 851

Pintér, Jeno (1881–1940), 681Pinto, Vivian, 279, 285Pipa, Arshi, 242, 246Pisárciková, Mária, 881, 899Píšová, D, 104Pisowicz, Andrzej, 141, 275, 327

Index 1101

Pisownia polska w ostatnich wydaniach(Polish Spelling in the latest Editions[of PAU’s Polish Orthography], 1933,Warsaw), 606

Pisownia polska. Przepisy–yy słowniczek (PolishOrthography: The principles and thedictionary, Cracow), 606, 607, 624,625, 627–8, 642

Pittsburgh Agreement (1918), 513, 558,721, 765, 817, 827, 828, 883

Piwtorak, Hryhorij, 398Pjsnˇ swˇ etské lidu slawenského w Uhráchˇ

(songs) (The Secular Songs of theSlavic [Slovak] People of Hungary,1823–1827, Pest), 538, 544

Placek, Vilém, 730, 775ˇPlain Language Society, 309Platt, 77, 80, 967Plebiscite, Upper Silesia (1921), 289, 584,

585, 587, 609, 617, 661, 726, 727,733, 735, 753, 989

plebiscites, East/West Prussia (1920), 584,726, 733, 824

Pletneva, Aleksandra Andreevna, 360Plody zboru ucenc˚ˇ u ˇ˚ reˇˇ ci ˇˇ ceskolovenskeˇ

prešporského (The Literary Fruit by theStudents of the CzechoslovakLanguage at the Prešpurk [Preßburg]Secondary School, 1836, Preßburg[Bratislava]), 542

Poccetti, Paolo, 98Podgorica (Titograd), 54, 233, 234Podkarpatskoe Obshchestvo Nauk

(Subcarpathian Scientific Society),857

Podolia, 15–17, 312Podracki, Jerzy, 643Polabian, 302Poland

Congress Kingdom of, 18, 19, 169, 380,384, 386, 393, 408, 414, 435, 907,914, 924, 929, 936, 970

Constitutions (1921 and 1997), 230,257, 306, 451, 588, 633, 638, 684,828, 952

corridor, 577, 584, 873culture, 415, 622economy of, 895education, 896ethnic nation, 24, 26, 54, 169, 389, 400,

414, 454, 484, 491, 491, 540, 574,575, 609, 916, 982

Germanization of, 184, 228, 305, 350,375, 404, 425, 459, 510, 549, 554,559, 612, 619, 620, 623, 810, 839,893, 907, 945

industrial output, 215, 387, 591,664, 770

intelligentsia, 39, 43, 117, 124, 168, 369,370, 387, 397, 399, 401, 413, 415,416, 426, 430, 448, 449, 520, 531,574, 575, 597, 598, 599, 608, 612,614, 621, 631, 640, 641, 642, 650,677, 679, 700, 701, 855, 906, 908, 961

interwar, 120, 357, 413, 414, 416, 586,587, 588, 589, 591, 592–9, 605–7,609, 613, 616–17, 626, 650, 678,687, 688, 727, 797, 927, 928,929, 987

Jews in, 595–6, 929Kingdom of, 15–19, 50, 69, 72, 73, 102,

110–12, 117–18, 137, 146, 153, 156,165, 168, 169, 175, 180, 185, 186,187, 368, 373, 373, 374, 380, 381,382, 384, 387, 393, 408, 409, 429,435, 439, 455, 473, 576, 604, 647,744, 907, 914, 924, 929, 936,970, 971

languages used, 582Legion, 405, 412minorities in, 636, 638, 924, 940nation, 908national movement, 398, 581nation-state, 408–16, 412, 413, 576,

603, 929organizations, patriotic, 3, 31, 32, 177,

214, 234, 300, 319, 328, 329, 330,382, 404, 410, 512, 554, 555, 558,561, 588, 595, 596, 607, 629, 633,634, 663, 721, 735, 772, 868, 873,875, 876, 889, 892, 894, 930, 959,976, 981

peasantry, 38, 78, 106, 114, 119, 126,139, 145, 153, 194, 370, 384, 389,392, 393, 400, 434, 435, 454, 490,505, 524, 573, 649, 671, 807, 808,906, 920, 954, 972, 983

People’s Republic of, 466, 622, 658, 692,731, 820, 821

Poland B, 590Prussians, 15, 28, 83, 578, 579, 580, 729,

820, 972, 990religion in, 593–4

1102 Index

Poland – continuedRussian Revolution, 250, 408, 409,

555, 962Soviet control, 148, 172, 611, 616, 689,

772, 773, 936, 941standard of living, 508, 511, 630, 693,

776, 832, 863, 873, 876territorial changes, 406, 577–8, 617, 936Unitary Kingdom of, 368see also Vistula Land

Poland/Grand Duchy of Lithuania, unionof (1385), 15–17, 70, 71, 72, 88, 89,101, 110–12, 118, 126, 137, 151,152–9, 162, 163–4, 168, 171, 172, 175,180–3, 185, 186, 187, 188, 190, 271,272, 307, 313, 368, 373, 374, 382,384, 385, 388, 395, 403, 408, 410,439, 465, 473, 482, 598, 647, 744,907, 929, 971, 972, 973

Poland-LithuaniaAustrian (Habsburg) zone of partition,

375, 577Commonwealth of, 16, 17, 23, 73, 110,

113, 115, 116, 119, 137, 142, 180,368, 370, 395, 439, 647, 648,907, 979

education, 90, 163, 376, 377, 379, 382,384, 591

end of, 116, 372French as sociolect, 369, 370, 597German in, 375, 378, 388, 391–2Latin, decline of, 114, 369mass migration of Germans, 585Partitions of (1772, 1793, 1795), 193,

371, 373, 375, 588Polish, decline of, 386, 387political class, 907Prussian zone of partition, 428, 604publishing in, 369religion in, 368Russian zone of partition, 913Russification, 385territiorial shape, 576uprising, 1794, 371

Polanian state, 15, 88Polanski, Kazimierz, 307Polenakovik, Haralampie, 355, 362Polesia (Polissia), 191, 590, 591, 601Polesian, 157, 191–2Polish/Lekhitic, 416–18Polish

Anglicization of, 632–3, 643

Chancery, 109, 111, 118, 157, 915continuous use of, 651, 907, 914creating national homogeneity, 117Czech influence in, 110decline of, 114, 602, 767development of, 108–9, 119, 393dialects/vernacular, 34, 111, 118, 119,

152, 350, 382, 405, 406, 417, 461,517, 606, 626, 917

in Galicia, 50, 405, 596, 914in Lithuania, 137, 163, 377, 574, 924and nationalism, 16, 185, 368, 390, 415,

604, 608, 647, 761, 805as official language, 26, 40, 42, 50, 70,

73, 79, 90, 111–12, 113, 114–16,137, 138–9, 152, 154, 156, 162–3,172, 180, 184, 188, 189, 193, 195,196, 277, 314, 347, 367, 368, 369,374, 382, 386–7, 392, 396, 398, 403,404, 408, 409, 416, 417, 426–8, 433,442–3, 448, 461, 476–7, 644, 929

as official language, sole, 40, 73, 90, 111,112, 115–16, 135, 137–9, 180, 184,188, 195, 404, 409, 502, 543, 548,579, 589, 592, 622, 667, 741, 886,902, 907, 914–16, 928, 929,935, 948

orthography, 111, 181, 185, 346, 381,402, 423, 424–6, 427, 428–9, 502,605–7, 625, 628

purifying, 282, 372, 429, 515, 881rise of, 40, 79, 99, 108, 111, 112,

113–14, 120, 124, 128, 139, 142,155, 178, 181–2, 185, 193, 194, 210,303–4, 313, 347, 368, 390, 397, 403,408, 411, 425–6, 434, 478, 502, 582,598, 604, 637, 693, 909, 912

as ‘Sarmatian language,’ 114as spirit of nation, 372, 574standard, 34, 118, 191, 373, 380–1, 392,

404–5, 579, 598, 608, 621, 625–6,631, 638, 641, 642, 643, 733,960(n.23), 980(n.6), 981(n.16)

standardization, of language, 27, 117,123, 136, 186, 191, 195, 210, 282,294, 314, 378, 380–1, 391–2, 425–7,438, 440, 461, 638, 648, 908, 931,954, 981(n.16)

use in Russia, 163vocabulary, 374, 378, 392, 627, 786written, 109, 112, 156, 371

Polish-Czechoslovak War (1919), 584

Index 1103

Polish-Soviet War (1919–1921), 412, 577political/social organization,

pre-modern, 31politicization, 6, 42, 44, 102, 123, 215,

229, 246, 345, 370, 397, 465, 594,648, 919, 932, 945, 947, 952

politics of language, 6, 7–11, 102, 756,803, 956(n.3)

politics/language, historical perspective,37–41, 773

Polnische Grammatik fuer Deutsche (ThePolish Grammar for Germans, 1808,Breslau), 379

Polnische Wirtschaft, 580Polnoi frantsuzskoi i rossiikoi leksikon

(Complete Lexicon of French andRussian, 1786, St Petersburg), 161

Polonia, 117–18, 608, 609Polonicae Grammatices Institutio (The

Foundations of Polish Grammar,1568, Cracow), 109

Polonization, 116 in 1920s; 1930s, 609of Belarusians, 140, 157, 586, 594, 603,

619, 628, 637, 678, 972(n.8)of education, 183–4, 395, 591–2, 594,

599–601, 603, 608, 623, 628, 678,871, 930

of Jews and Germans, 413of Lithuanians, 182, 184, 185, 193, 347,

591, 637, 930of Szlonzoks, 592, 603, 619–20, 775of Ukrainians, 157, 177, 314, 394, 413,

591, 594, 601, 603, 619–20, 628,637, 678, 871, 930, 972(n.8)

see also de-PolonizationPolskie Wydawnictwo Naukowe (PWN)

(Polish Scientific PublishingHouse), 640

Polsko-rossiiskii slovar/r Słownikpolsko-rossyyski (Polish-RussianDictionary, 1828–1830, Wilno[Vilnius]), 382

Polytechnic of Lwów, 392Pomakian, 286, 287, 303, 361Pomerania, 17, 21, 72, 118, 290, 375, 417,

584, 588, 590, 592, 595, 611–12,987(n.5)

Pop, Ivan, 98, 220, 557, 657, 667, 671,676, 688, 690, 698, 725, 738, 748,753, 766, 768, 771, 775, 825, 829,858, 875, 892, 986(n.14), 992(n.13)

Popadic, Miloslav, 143´

Pope John Paul II (see Wojtyła, Karol)Popiołek, Barbara, 149Popov, Vesselin, 335Popularna encyklopedia powszechna (The

Popular Universal Encyclopedia,1994–1998, Cracow), 640–1, 950

population exchange, 11, 36, 48, 52, 60,361, 611, 614, 618, 775, 863, 893,939, 959(n.17), 989(n.1)

Poradnik Jezykowyee (periodical) (LanguageAdvisor, Warsaw), 624

Porajmos, 617, 978(n.50)see also Samudardipen

Porák, Jaroslav, 100, 421, 424Porter, Brian A, 403Portuguese, 32, 35, 40, 41, 64, 96, 112,

318, 329, 361Posen, Grand Duchy of, 18, 380, 382–3

see also WielkopolskaPosen, Province of, 19, 348, 400, 403–4,

408, 413, 415, 428, 577, 936see also Wielkopolska

postwar order, 684, 716, 722, 735, 925Potocki, Stanisław Kostka (1755–1821),

372Potsdam, 306, 617–18, 938Potsdam Conference (1945), 617, 618Poulton, Hugh, 255power, 7–9, 11, 15, 18, 27, 33, 39, 42, 59,

112–13, 118, 121, 137–8, 140, 145,162, 259, 263, 264, 269, 282, 342,373, 393, 399, 409, 411, 452, 457,472, 477, 482–3, 544, 587–8, 592, 599,621, 622, 653, 658, 660, 664, 679,689, 692, 697, 702, 703, 709, 720,750, 753–4, 758, 760, 768, 773, 776–7,788-9, 815, 821, 825, 834, 836, 839,862, 866–7, 873, 877, 884, 888, 894,901, 909–10, 919, 931, 938, 958(n.16),959(n.16), 961(n.31), 964(n.3),965(n.5), 970(n.2), 971(n.3), 991(n.9),992(nn.12, 2), 993(n.3)

Poznan (Posen), 18, 19, 347, 375, 380,´382, 389, 400, 403–4, 408, 413–15,428–9, 482, 577, 611, 936

Pozsonychildren exchange, 465see also Preßburg; Bratislava

Prace Filologiczne (periodical) (PhilologicalReview, Warsaw), 428

Prach, Ivan (1750–1818), 538Pragocentrismus, 505, 777

1104 Index

Prague, 3, 16, 47, 69, 72, 73, 79–82,99–107, 111, 117, 122, 133, 135, 154,178, 185, 282, 304–5, 408, 443–4, 453,463, 470, 477–8, 479, 482–5, 488–94,497–8, 500, 504–17, 519–21, 536, 538,540, 542, 548, 550, 554, 557–8, 560–1,565, 567, 582, 606, 610, 625, 627,642, 657, 674, 683, 697–702, 712, 715,718–21, 724, 726–34, 736–8, 741, 743,746–54, 756–65, 769, 771–81, 783–8,790, 793, 795–800, 808–12, 814–18,821, 823–4, 826–37, 839, 841-5,847–9, 861–2, 864–72, 874, 877–85,891–2, 895, 913, 915, 924, 926, 928,931, 936, 941–5, 951, 958(n. 12)

Prague Agreements (1946), 862Prague dialect, 506Prague Linguistic Circle (Pražský

linguistický kroužek), 516–17Prague Spring, 565, 697, 698, 701, 702,

776, 777–8, 783, 786, 788, 865–6, 880,941–2, 943–5

Prague Technical University, 508Praktyczny słownik współczesnej polszczyzny

(The Practical Dictionary ofContemporary Polish, Poznan,1994–2005, Poznan), 643

Pravidla ceského pravopisu (The Principlesof Czech Orthography and CorrectWriting, Prague), 760, 771, 785, 796

Pravidla hledící k ceskému pravopisu atvarosloví (The Rules of CzechOrthography and Morphology, 1902,Prague), 516, 760

Pravidlá slovenského pravopisu (ThePrinciples of Slovak Orthography andCorrect Writing, Prague andTurciansky Svätý Martin), 757, 835,845, 859, 879, 880, 899

Pražák, Albert (1880–1956), 520, 521Predislovie o polze knig tserkovnykh iazyke

(On the Use of Church Books in theRussian Language, 1755,St Petersburg), 161

Preis, Petr Ivanovich (1810–1846), 417Prekmurjan, 293, 299–300, 467Prekmurje, 289–90, 292–3, 295, 297, 299,

467, 697Prel, Max Freiherr du, 613, 615Prešeren, France (1800–1849), 295Preßburg, 16, 82, 125, 129, 131, 133–4,

431–3, 449–50, 453, 461, 482, 492,

519, 522–3, 529, 533, 535–7, 542,544–5, 547, 549, 550–2, 559, 562, 645,842, 846, 903, 911, 958(n.112),982(n.2), 985(n.13)

see also Bratislava; PozsonyPrešov (Epejres, Preschau), 556, 567, 731,

736–7, 740, 746, 778, 820, 822, 825–6,849, 874–5, 891, 954, 985(n.10),992(n.13)

prewar frontier, 2Pribina, 751–2Pribojevic, Vinko, 478Price, Glanville, 41, 48, 65, 86, 98, 103,

152, 157, 160, 162, 177, 181, 183,186, 190, 197, 201, 205, 208, 211,215, 217, 220, 222, 226, 228, 231,246, 255, 264, 266, 275, 285, 287,299, 301, 307, 309, 311, 316, 320,327, 335, 340, 531, 535, 581,974(n.22), 978(n.52)

Prifti, Peter R, 242primordialism, 27printers’ languages, 79

see also Druckersprachenprinting, 39, 41, 69, 80, 81, 136, 342

Belarusian, 171Catholic/Protestant, 81Church Slavonic, 151Czech, 100, 107Hungarian, 122Macedonia, 247Magyar language, 122Poland-Lithuania, 183, 369Polish, 393Russia, 152Serbia, 223Slovenian, 293spread of, 79, 80, 81Walachian, 206

Prinz, Friedrich, 730, 740Pripet Marshes, 168Prirucka k dejinám spisovnej slovenciny (The

Handbook of Written Slovak, 1999,Bratislava), 532

Prirucní slovník ceskoˇ -slovenský aslovensko-ceský (The ReferenceCzech-Slovak and Slovak-CzechDictionary, 1919, Prague), 847

Prirucní slovník jazyka ceskéhoˇ (TheReference Dictionary of the CzechLanguage, 1935–1957, Prague), 515,762, 763, 784, 785

Index 1105

Priru´ cní slovník nauˇˇ cnýˇ (The ReferenceScientific Dictionary, 1962–1967,Prague), 786

Prírucný encyklopedický slovníkˇ (TheReference Encyclopedical Dictionary,Martin), 879

Priština (Prishtinë), 245Prítomnost a obrazy zo života tatranskéhoˇ

(Contemporary Pictures from Lifeunder the Tatra Mountains, 1844,Preßburg [Bratislava]), 547

Pritsak, Omeljan, 175Prochácka, Peter, 697Prodan, D, 453Prohászka, Ottokár (1858–1927), 664Projekt ortografii polskiej w podrecznikachee

szkolnych (A Proposal of PolishOrthography to be Employed inSchool Textbooks, 1891, Cracow), 428

Prose della volgar lingua (Vernacular Prose,1525, Venice), 45

Protestant Bible Society, 162Prúdy (periodical) (Currents, 1909–1914,

Budapest), 554Prussia, 17, 84, 580

Ducal, 111, 113, 115, 578, 580East, 17, 18, 21–2, 72, 85, 180, 183–5,

187, 347–8, 375, 398, 401, 577–9,584, 617, 925, 936

Royal, 73, 81, 113, 115, 579, 580, 592,908, 987(n.5)

West, 17–19, 344, 413, 577, 580, 584,987(n.5)

Prut, 18, 208, 969(n.25)Pruthenian (Old Prussian), 180–1, 344Przemysl (Peremyshl), 383, 652´Przyborowski, Józef, 397Przyłubski, Feliks, 379, 384PSL (Polskie Stronnictwo Ludowe) (Polish

People’s [Peasant] Party), 399, 400psychology of nation, 46publications/publishing, 402

Armenian, 324Ashxarhabar, 326Biblictina, 536Czech, 490, 491, 514Esperanto, 337Estonian, 198Hebrew, 309Hungary, 700–1Ladino, 319Latgalian, 196

Magyar, 438, 439, 441, 679Polish, 414, 415, 620, 629Romani, 330, 333Serbian, 452Slovakia, 783Slovjak, 821Sorbian, 304Walachian, 452Yiddish, 312, 314

Pulevski, G’or’gija (1820/1828–1895), 248Pumpurs, Andrejs (1841–1902), 194Pushkin, Alexander (1799–1837), 162, 372Puszta (Hungarian Plain), 128Puttkamer, Joachim von, 459Puxon, Grattan, 335, 619Puzynina, Jadwiga, 41, 48PWN (Polskie Wydawnictwo Naukowe)

(Polish Scientific PublishingHouse), 640

Pynsent, Robert B., 70, 124, 157, 170, 175,177, 179, 182, 197, 201, 208, 222, 225,228, 242, 246, 255, 264, 279, 285, 299,307, 316, 327, 398, 437, 976(n.29)

Qarai, Ali Qull, 228, 233, 246, 264, 269,285, 311, 327, 340, 976(n.37)

Quo Vadis, 415

Rácek, Blažej, 502, 510ˇRacheva, Mariia, 167Rada, Ivan, 98, 103, 111Radulescu, Ion Heliade (1802–1872), 209˘Rahner, Hugo, 264Rainis, Janis (1865–1929), 194¯Rajkiewicz, Antoni, 636Rak, Jíri, 505ˇRákóczi, Ferenc II (1676–1735), 432Rank, Josef, 348, 489Rapant, Daniel, 450Rappaport, Emil Stanisław, 573Raun, Toivo U, 148, 194, 201Reban, Milan J, 783Rechnik na svaremenen balgarski ezik (The

Dictionary of the ContemporaryBulgarian Language, 1955–1959,Sofia), 625

records, written, 8, 330Red Army, 411, 412, 616, 772, 774

Hungarian, 411, 589, 659, 689, 690,774, 825

Redgate, A E, 327Reform Movement, Second, 655

1106 Index

Reformation, the, 6, 8, 39, 69, 88, 111–12,127, 139–40, 180–1, 184, 192, 206,220, 220, 236, 260, 277, 292, 303,341, 343, 344, 421, 431, 467, 504,532, 578, 579, 959(n.16), 980(n.7)

refugees, 584–5, 608Czech, 767German, 468, 585, 687, 774, 777, 781Magyar, 681, 690, 691, 695, 733Polish, 666, 687, 734, 748, 774Tešín (Cieszyn, Teschen) Silesia, 610ˇ

regime change, destruction of records, 8regional groups, empowerment of, 8Reichan, Jerzy, 626Reichskommissariat Kaukasus, 935Reichskommissariat Moskau, 935Reichskommissariat Ostland, 21, 602,

614–15, 935Reichskommissariat Ukraine, 21,

614–15, 935Reichsrat (Austrian Empire,

Austria-Hungary), 456–7, 463,508–9, 557

Reichsrat (German Empire), 349Reinfeld, Barbara K, 500Rej, Mikołaj (1505–1569), 110Rejzek, Jirí, 120, 335, 796, 969(n.24),

984(n.6)religion

Czech/Czechoslovakia, 2, 12, 14–15, 34,61, 81, 87, 118, 138, 167, 242, 282,332, 391, 470, 483, 486–7, 498, 524,532, 581, 582, 600, 610, 657, 686,671, 695, 705, 710, 727, 729, 740,743, 746, 765–6, 772, 778–9, 783,791, 794, 798, 814, 818, 821, 824,826, 840–2, 858, 864, 871, 873–4,903, 912, 914, 925, 928, 937, 940

Hungary, 2, 12–15, 81, 87, 138, 167,250, 291–2, 308, 332, 352, 391, 415,450, 470–1, 524, 532, 549, 582, 600,610, 655, 657, 671, 695, 705, 710,714, 743, 765–6, 778, 794, 814, 818,821, 826, 840, 842, 858, 871, 891,903, 912, 921, 925, 928, 937, 940

and language, 4, 14, 34, 39, 61, 86, 93,102, 118, 138, 152, 156, 187–8, 189,232, 250, 270, 282, 301, 308, 314,335, 341, 346, 354, 362, 415, 426,470–1, 549, 580, 582, 590, 600, 636,671, 686, 710, 743, 746, 779, 818,

821, 840–1, 858, 871, 873, 903, 914,928, 940

in Poland, 113, 126, 153, 311, 593–4,602, 633, 727, 746, 748, 791,824, 940

political significance of, 10, 39Ruthenian, 126–7, 277, 656, 734, 873and scripts, 87, 342–4, 347–8Slovak, 195, 531, 571, 656, 868Walachia/Moldavia, 48, 88, 113, 127,

139, 204, 208, 209, 277, 451, 673religion-script divide, 144Remnek, Miranda Beaven, 152, 416Renaissance, the, 94, 473Renan, Ernest (1823–1892), 46René mlád’enca príhodi, a skúsenost’i (René

or Adventures and Experiences of aYoung Man, 1783–1785, Preßburg[Bratislava]), 134, 533, 853

Renner, Karl (1870–1950), 575, 993Repa, Milan, 502Resian, 300Resians, 300Révai Nagy Lexikona. Az ismeretek

enciklopédiája (Révai Great Lexicon: Auniversal encyclopedia, 1911–1935,Budapest), 682, 705

Révai, Miklós (1750–1807), 439Rhodope, the, 64, 468Riabczuk, Mykoła, 632Ribay, Jur (1745–1812), 535Ribbentrop-Molotov Pact, (1939), 611,

973(n.18)Richter, Helmut, 86Richter, Michael, 98Rieger, František (1818–1903), 487, 493,

497, 507, 508, 514, 515Riga, 46, 186, 190, 195, 197–8, 412–13,

435, 495, 577, 589, 973(n.18)Riggs, Elias (1810–1910), 280, 283Riis, Carsten, 246, 264, 285Rijeka (Fiume), 16, 457, 652, 660Rilski, Neofit (1793–1881), 280Ripka, Ivor, 851, 869, 883, 899, 900Rivarol, Antoine, see de Rivarol, AntoineRizner, L’udovít V (1929–1934), 34Roads of the Roma: A PEN anthology of

Gypsy writers, the (1998, Hatfield), 334Robert, K, 347Rodkiewicz, Witold, 115, 164, 167, 170,

185, 190, 972(n.8)Rogall, Joachim, 384, 416, 619, 630

Index 1107

Rogers, Henry, 61, 98, 327, 421Rohn, Jan Karel, 106Rolková, Natália, 875, 892, 895, 896, 899Roma International Union, 978(n.51)Roma national movement, 332–3, 872,

978(n.51)Roma, 892, 895, 904

in Czechoslovakia, 781, 870, 889in Hungary, 14, 203, 328, 332, 699,

707–8, 792, 872, 889national village soviet/collective

farms, 330origins of, 328population, 215–16, 331–2, 892Samudardipen (Roma Holocaust)slavery, 263, 32–9, 831, 495, 831,

974(n.23)Roman Empire, 4, 14–15, 17–18, 33, 39,

40, 63, 64–5, 66–8, 71–7, 80, 83,87–90, 92–4, 96–7, 99, 101, 103–4,106, 108–9, 113, 121, 123, 126, 142,151, 186, 203, 242, 246–7, 249, 255–6,259, 263, 273, 290, 292, 294, 301,307, 311, 321, 343–5, 351, 365, 370,379, 419, 434, 437–8, 453, 473–4, 478,482–3, 488, 499, 504, 523, 648, 805–7,815, 910, 926, 935, 961(n.32),964(n.3), 965(n.5), 981(n.10)

Roman Empire, Eastern, 66, 93–4, 96, 141,246–7, 249, 321, 419, 964(n.3)

see also ByzantiumRoman Empire, Western, 93–4, 259,

263, 419Romance, 35, 64–5, 96–7, 152, 159–60,

182, 201–2, 205, 210, 214–15, 217,300, 317, 352, 361, 419–21, 473,957(n.3), 969(n.22), 974(n.22)

Rhaeto-Romance subgroup, 300romancium circa latinum, 94Romani, 203, 327–35, 635, 699, 793,

871–2, 904, 952, 978(n.48), 978(n.51)Romania, 3–4, 18, 21, 48, 52, 55, 57, 72,

140–1, 148, 203, 208, 209–10, 212–13,216, 270, 286, 311, 313, 323, 333,363, 459, 571, 625, 654, 661, 664,666, 670, 671, 673, 676–7, 679, 686,691, 693, 694, 695–6, 699, 705,709–10, 735, 737, 793, 819, 893–4,924, 926, 927, 937, 942, 969(n.25)

Romania (daily, Bucharest), 452, 964(n.3)Romanian Academy of Sciences, 210, 211Romanian communist party, 695

Romanian national movement, 4, 210,447, 472, 555

Romanian, 50, 64–5, 176, 201, 209, 210,211–12, 214–17, 269, 328, 353, 361,463, 503, 554, 670, 686, 697, 876,940, 963(n.49)

see also WalachianRomanowski, Andrzej, 170–1, 173, 174Romans, 95, 182, 186, 201, 202, 203, 205,

208, 216–17, 256, 257, 277, 290, 319,372, 418, 473, 964(n.3), 965(n.5)

Romansch, 40, 961(n.28)Rome, 7, 15, 48, 68, 69, 80, 82, 87, 91–3,

95, 98, 109, 151, 165, 203, 207, 210,216, 219, 242, 254, 257, 261, 265,277, 321, 324, 342–4, 352, 415, 419,528, 610, 754, 837, 861, 964–5(n.3),974(n.24)

Romero, Elena, 320Romlex (online Romani dictionary, 2005,

Graz), 334Rosa, Václav Jan (1625–1675), 103Rosiiskaia grammatika (Russian Grammar,

1755, St Petersburg), 161Rospond, Stanisław, 418rossiiskii, 162, 164–5, 167, 382Rotenstreich, Nathan, 46Rothschild, Joseph, 52, 603, 661, 662, 667,

672, 676, 677, 678, 683, 685, 688,690, 725, 738, 740, 749, 753, 754,756, 766, 832, 836, 842

Rous, Jan, 344, 348, 517Roy, Olivier, 24, 27, 269, 275Royal Society of Prussia, 260Rozprawy i wnioski o ortografii polskiej

(Theses and Conclusions on PolishOrthography, 1830, Warsaw), 381

Rubinyi, Mózes (1881–1965), 680Rudolf II, Emperor (r.1576–1612), 482Rukovät’ spisovnej reˇi slovenskejˇ (The Guide

to the Written Slovak Language, 1902,Turócszentmárton), 563, 567, 843,847, 848

Rukovet’ správné ˇˇ ceštinyˇ (The Handbook ofCorrect Czech, 1891, Telc/Teltsch),ˇ759

Rum empire, 256Rumelia (see Bulgaria)Rumelia, Eastern, 283Runes, 67, 69, 143, 419–20, 473, 475,

965–6(n.5), 967(n.11)Rusinow, Dennison, 226, 698

1108 Index

ruskaia dusha (Russian soul or spirit), 46Ruskaia Pravda (Rus Law Code), 158ruski, 70, 152, 162, 164, 165–7, 169, 171,

177, 351, 383, 394, 409, 744Russia, 4, 7, 9, 12–13, 17–21, 23, 50, 55,

97, 115, 117, 137, 145, 165–6, 171,175, 177–8, 181, 183–5, 187, 196, 205,208–9, 223, 250, 252, 257, 264, 273–4,280, 282, 313, 325, 327, 330, 333,347, 353–4, 358, 360, 365, 370, 376,381, 382, 384, 385, 388, 390, 394,396, 399, 402, 404, 409, 412, 414,453, 470, 512, 557, 575, 577, 583,589, 593, 596, 617, 630, 680, 719,720, 732, 771, 735, 760, 772, 799,822, 828, 888, 907, 914, 919–21, 924,958(n.8), 971(n.6), 981(n.12)

Russian Academy of Sciences, 40, 89, 161,385, 971(n.5), 979(n.5)

Russian Empire, 2, 9, 17–20, 40–1, 49, 51,72–3, 89, 113, 138, 140, 142, 147,162–6, 168, 170, 175–6, 183, 188, 193,211–12, 273–4, 308–9, 313, 323, 326,345–7, 350–2, 355–7, 376, 380, 382,385–8, 393–4, 397–8, 407–9, 414–15,427, 453, 477, 490, 497, 499, 569–70,575–6, 583, 595, 597, 602, 669, 745,804, 893, 907, 909, 918–19, 921, 936,946, 970(n.30), 980(n.9), 981(n.12)

see also MuscovyRussian Federation, 56, 58, 66, 197, 201,

269, 274Russian Revolution (1905), 250, 409, 555Russian, 41, 55, 86, 91, 158, 164

3 styles of, 161, 163, 223, 224, 280, 325dialects/vernacular, 159, 160, 161, 168,

169, 171Great Russian, 162, 166, 168–9, 175,

211, 213–14, 303, 314, 357, 394–5,398, 669, 846, 961(n.36)

influence of French, 453, 161in international communication, 701in Israel, 310as official language, 162Old, 171replacement of Finnish/Swedish, 163rise of, 138, 303, 656simplifying reform, 164

Russification, 36, 54, 398Belarus, 55, 173, 174, 360, 615Estonia, 199gubernias, Baltic, 395–6, 397

Lithuanian/Samogitian, 184, 398Poland-Lithuania, 385of Soviet Jewry, 314–15Ukraine, 36, 55, 66, 120, 173, 591, 603,

613, 615, 778, 873–4, 935Russkaia grammatika (Russian Grammar,

1831, St Petersburg), 162russkii, 162, 164–5, 166, 167Russkoe pravopisane (Russian Grammar,

1885, St Petersburg), 163rustica romana lingua (‘rural Roman

language’), 94Rusyn national movement, 355, 583, 890Rusyn (see Ruthenian)Rusyns, 14, 131–2, 146, 218, 355, 391,

471, 583–4, 732, 804, 822, 889–92,923, 930

Ruthenia, 656, 735, 749, 872Subcarpathian, 20–1, 167, 177–8, 355,

470, 484, 558, 583, 610, 657, 665,670–1, 674, 677, 686, 690, 696, 715,723–4, 732, 734, 736, 737, 739–41,743–9, 753–8, 765–7, 770–4, 778,817, 818–19, 821, 826–8, 832,836–8, 841, 885, 856, 858, 872–4,923, 925–6, 928, 930, 936, 939,990(n.3), 992(n.13)

Transcarpathian, 470, 772, 775,993(n.13)

see also Carpathia‘Ruthenian Munich’ (1945), 772, 872Ruthenian National Councils, 734, 736Ruthenian national movement, 470, 687,

744, 804, 873–4, 890, 986(n.14)Ruthenian, 40, 70, 81, 89, 101, 111–20,

125, 127, 129, 142, 152–66, 174–5,181, 188, 191, 198, 204, 222, 271,276–7, 340–1, 351, 390, 470, 590, 743,907, 960(n.28), 971(n.10), 973(n.19),979(n.3)

Chancery, 152Church Slavonic as, 176decline/rise of, 156, 767literacy, 154, 155–6, 157, 158–9, 177,

351, 470phonetic orthography, 391in Poland, 597as the Russian language, 162vernacular, 176, 744–7, 767, 829,

872, 874Ruthenian (Rusyn), 470, 484, 503,

512–13, 545, 549–52, 558, 583, 610,

Index 1109

670, 674, 687, 697, 743–7, 778, 795,832, 872–6, 928, 963(n.49), 982(n.10),985(n.14)

Ruthenian (Ukrainian), 40, 50, 166ff,176–7, 210, 248, 355, 357, 373, 375,377, 380, 383, 390–4, 401–2, 409, 414,417–18, 440, 444, 463, 497, 583,588–91, 597, 601–3, 743, 929–30,980(n.11), 981(n.13)

Ružicka, Jozef (1916–1989), 521, 881,ˇ899–900, 1037

Rybinski, Jan (1560–1621), 111´Rychlik, Jan, 771, 777, 790, 869Ryczkowski, Marek, 730, 775Rykaczewski, Erazm (1803–1873), 426, 427Ryznar, Eliska, 489, 491, 493, 495, 725,

756, 768, 771, 784, 842, 861, 883Rzepka, Wojciech Ryszard, 111Rzetelska-Fleszko, Ewa, 27

Šafárik, Pavol Jozef (Šafarik, Pavel Jozefˇand Šafarjk, Pawel Josef), 417, 438,ˇ449, 479, 489, 513, 532, 537–44, 546,550, 561, 718, 808–9, 812–13, 819,835, 878, 985(n.8), 990(n.4)

Sahanowicz, Hienad, 157, 167St Stephen, King (r. 997–1038), see Vajk,

King (r. 997–1038)Sajnovics, János (1733–1785), 475Sakcinski, Ivan Kukuljevic (1816–1889),´

444Sakson, Andrzej, 348, 579salami economy (Hungary), 693, 700Salva, Karel, 564, 847–8Samenhof, Eliezer (1859–1917), 309, 336

see also Zamenhof, LudwikSamo (ruler), 14, 479Samo’s state (623–658), 14, 527Samogitia (see Lithuania)Samogitian, 181–4, 186–8, 190, 194–6,

200, 212, 395–6, 398, 402, 588,972(n.13), 973(n.14, 15, 17)

see also LithuanianSamogitian-Lithuanian, 183–4Samoyedic languages, 65Samudardipen (Roma Holocaust), 617,

978(n.50)see also Porajmos

Sandecki-Malecki, Jan (1490–1567),110, 423

Sanders, Barry, 25Sándor, Anna, 705, 947

St Petersburg, 19, 49–50, 89, 115, 141,160–2, 165–71, 177–8, 183, 185, 187,199, 208–12, 273, 278, 282–3, 304,322, 325, 330, 337, 345–7, 353, 370,372, 380–2, 389–90, 393–9, 403–4,407–10, 415, 429, 451, 569, 575, 588,595, 602, 669, 909, 919, 925,969(n.30), 971(n.8), 979(n.5), 985(n.9),986(n.2)

Sanskrit, 61, 186, 258, 473, 475,962(n.42), 978(n.51)

Sapir, Edward, 63, 905, 962(n.43)Sarajevo (Bosna Saray), 232, 232–3Sarajlija, Sima Milutinovic (1791–1847),´

224Sarbiewski (Sarbievus) Maciej Kazimierz

(1595–1640), 95, 987(n.10)sariskij (Sáros) jazik, 821, 985(n.10)

see also SlovjakSasinek, František Viktor (1830–1914), 814Šatava, Leoš, 619, 697, 699, 708, 783, 792,

793, 832, 872, 875–6, 883Sautman, Barry, 27Sava, 16, 218, 220–3, 236, 255, 467,

982(n.10)Saxons, 72, 76, 93, 121, 127, 207, 450–2,

455, 658, 672–3, 687, 856, 967(n.15),990(n.1)

Saxony, 83, 977(n.42)Kingdom of, 139, 232, 358, 377, 529Lower, 76Prussian, 18, 83, 377

Sayer, Derek, 491, 493, 495, 510, 513, 757Sborní k Maticy slovenskej (The Journal of

the Matica slovenská), 860Scaglione, Aldo, 41Schaff, Philipp, 222, 228Schenker, Alexander M, 28, 48, 111, 115,

961(n.29)Schiewe, Jürgen, 40, 86, 442schism (1667, Old Believers,

Muscovy), 159Schism, Great (1054), 87, 204, 219,

242, 291Schleicher, August, 417, 489Schlesisches Wörterbuch (Dictionary of the

Silesian Dialect, 1962–1965,Berlin), 406

Schlösser, Rainer, 35, 41, 45, 99, 143, 211,320, 957(n.2), 961(n.28)

Schneider, Reinhard, 99Schöpflin, George, 12, 693

1110 Index

Schroeder, Klaus-Henning, 208, 211Schulze, Hagen, 456Schwabacher script, 342Schwartz, Michael, 566, 722Schwyzertüütsch, 76, 78

see also Swiss GermanScotus Viator, 437, 450, 459, 462, 464,

550, 557see also Seton-Watson, Robert William

scripts, 139, 358–61Antiqua, 95, 342, 770Armenian, 323–4, 362banning of, Russian, 220Bosnian, 220Carolingian miniscule, 68, 92, 95, 342in Church Slavonic, 81, 151, 160, 164,

205, 219–20, 254, 353–4, 356–7,359–60, 529

civil, 160, 350, 356Cyrillic, 144, 225, 247, 314, 353, 359,

529, 602Devanagari, 328, 978(n.51)German national, 349Glagolitic, 69, 87Gothic, 69, 73, 84, 92, 95, 107, 136, 172,

188–9, 195, 304, 342, 344–5,347–50, 355, 362, 541, 729, 741,968(n.18), 974(n.20)

Grazhdanka, 350, 351, 353, 354Greek, 39, 69, 91, 141, 160, 205, 244,

247, 254, 259, 287, 341, 360, 363,965(n.5)

humanist miniscule, 343Irish (Gaelic), 92, 345Latin, 91–2, 244, 419political significance of, Schwabacher,

342, 358Sogdian (Runic), 264, 965(n.5)Sorbian, 304, 306see also individual languages

Scythian, 475Scythians, 475SdP (Sudetendeutsche Partei), 836Sedlar, Jean W, 63–4, 67–70, 148Seewann, Gerhard, 685Seilenthal, Tõnu, 201Sejm

of interwar Poland, 592, 987(n.11)of postcommunist Poland, 632, 636of Silesian Voivodeship, the, 592, 602

self-determination, national, 32, 51, 411,416, 459, 558–9, 569, 653, 721–2, 725,

753, 816, 826, 921–5, 961(n.36),992–3(n.2)

Šembera, Alois Vojtech (1807–1882),517, 519

Semitic languages, 67, 307Semotanová, Eva, 730, 734, 738, 749, 753,

756, 771, 775, 777, 784, 790, 792,829, 836, 839

Sennacieca Asocio Tutmonda (SAT, WorldNon-National Association), 338

Sephardim, 307, 318–19, 336Sephiha, Haïm-Vidal, 320Septuagint, the (Greek translation of the

Old Testament), 259Serafin, Franiszek, 585, 593, 598, 602,

610, 730Serbia, 217, 218, 222, 982(n.4)

Serbian uprising, first (1807–1813), 223Serbian uprising, second,

(1815), 223see also Kosovo, Yugoslavia

Serbia-Montenegro, 37, 54, 144, 235, 254see also Montenegro, Serbia

Serbian, 20, 22, 34–5, 37, 50, 54, 58, 70,82, 129, 141, 143–4, 147, 149, 176,204, 176, 204, 217–19, 220, 222–3,224, 225–6, 227–31, 232–6, 238–41,243, 245, 247–8, 250–1, 253, 254, 256,276, 278–9, 297, 302–3, 306, 340, 351,353–4, 358–9, 361, 390, 436, 444,452–3, 456–7, 460, 463, 465, 468–9,471, 477, 480, 492, 502–3, 512, 538–9,543, 545, 551, 554, 657–8, 663, 676–7,697, 706, 710, 717–18, 745, 812, 850,851, 876, 953, 961(n.26), 963(n.49),975(nn.27, 29), 976(nnn.30, 31, 32),982(n.10)

Serbo-Croatian, 28, 37, 50, 53–4, 144,217, 225, 226, 227–9, 230, 231–3,235, 236, 238–40, 244, 248, 251–3,281, 291, 295, 297–8, 303, 329,340–1, 351, 359, 436, 460, 469, 471,527, 667, 670, 676, 686–7, 697, 718,738, 742, 850–1, 876, 940, 977(n.43),982(n.6)

Serbo-Croato-Bulgarian, 281Serbocroatoslovenian, 51–3, 228–9, 232,

297, 303, 340, 676, 738, 850Serbske narodne novine (periodical) (Serbian

National News), 452serfdom, 39, 119, 145, 209, 328, 371,

389–90, 434, 451, 454, 474, 487, 548,

Index 1111

573, 587, 650, 672, 807, 808,938(n.13)

Croatian, 454, 807, 983(n.13)Czech Crown, Lands of, 487, 807Hungarian, 434, 454, 474, 487, 548,

587, 650, 672, 807–8Poland/ Poland-Lithuania, 119, 145,

368, 371, 389, 390, 434, 573, 587Seto (Setu), 200–1

see also VõroSetus, 200Seton-Watson, Robert William

(1879–1951), 11, 208–9, 445, 456,491, 500, 510, 557, 559, 813

see also Scotus ViatorSeven Weeks’ War (1866), 18, 365, 453Seym

of Congress Poland, 384, 386of Poland-Lithuania, 111, 115, 368,

384, 386Sforim, Mendele Mocher (1836–1917), 312Shapkarev, Kuzman (1834–1909), 248Shche ne vmerla Ukraina (song), 443Sherman, Joseph, 79Shevchenko, Taras (1814–1861), 31, 175,

175, 358, 401, 613Shevelov, George Y, 167, 170, 177–9Shitsgal, A G, 351Shkumbin, 242Shmeruk, Chone, 86Short, David, 507, 541, 547, 557, 562Siarczynski, Franciszek, Father´

(1758–1829), 384Siatkowska, Ewa, 100, 103, 110, 111, 134,

255, 371, 374, 424, 481, 521Sibiu (Hermannstadt, Nagyszeben), 72, 81,

204, 206, 694Siebs, Theodor (1862–1941), 85Siemakowicz, Marian, 591, 602Sienkiewicz, Henryk (1846–1916), 415Sikorski, Saturnin (1862–1922), 407Silesia, 15, 72, 85, 106, 340, 348, 413, 485,

487, 493, 494, 497–8, 502–3, 506, 507,517, 530, 581, 582, 584, 585, 587,592, 609–10, 633, 642, 665, 719, 720,726, 728–30, 732–4, 739, 741, 747,758, 766, 773, 775–6, 778, 781, 788,790, 800, 824, 687, 871, 912, 915,925, 985(n.9)

Czech, 20, 484–6, 506, 642, 665, 674,728, 730, 734, 739, 754, 758–9,

765–6, 780–2, 791, 800, 821, 867,869, 871, 913, 954

Lower, 72, 350, 413, 581, 730, 773Silesian Voivodeship, 587, 591–3, 596,

598, 602–3, 610, 854Upper, 17, 19, 340, 413, 494, 573, 577,

578, 581–2, 584–5, 587, 591–3, 595,598, 610–12, 618, 633–4, 636, 717,727–30, 733, 747, 756, 772–3, 775,806, 922, 925, 930, 940, 954,989(n.1), 990(n.5)

Silesian, 82, 303, 340–1, 406, 417, 478,481, 485, 488–9, 490, 496–7, 502–3,532, 540, 560, 578, 581, 584, 587,591–3, 596, 598, 602–3, 610, 633,636–9, 717, 727–8, 733, 739, 758,790–2, 800–1, 806, 822, 836, 854, 873,892, 895, 906, 930, 931, 940, 951,987(n.12), 989(n.1), 990(nn.5, 2)

see also Slunzakian, SzlonzokianSilesian Uprisings (revolts), 581Silesian Voivodeship, 587, 591, 592–3,

596, 598, 602–3, 610, 854Silesians, 478, 481, 489, 496–7, 502, 578,

581, 636–9, 717, 727–8, 790–2, 800–1,873, 892, 895, 906, 930

see also Slunzaks, SzlonzoksSiljak, Ana, 36, 72Silva quadrilinguis (The Forest of Four

Languages, 1598, Prague), 101Silver, Brian D, 168Šimek, František, 786Simonyi, Zsigmond (1853–1919), 461,

517, 627, 680, 917, 947Simpson, George W, 167Simpson, J A, 99, 167, 275, 309, 316, 335,

962(n.42), 965(n.3), 967(n.13),968(n.16), 976(n.33), 977(n.43),983(n.10)

Singer, Isaac Bashevis (1904–1991),316, 320

Sinkó, Katalin, 476Sinti, 306, 329

see also RomaŠipka, Danko, 235Šipka, Milan, 228, 231, 233, 360Sirigos, Meletios (1590–1664), 260Sirvydas, Konstantinas (1578–1631), 182Sitarz, Magdalena Joanna, 79Sixtus V, Pope (1585–1590), 343Skaryna, Frantsysk (1486–1551), 154

1112 Index

Skënderbeu, Gjergj Kastrioti (Skanderberg,Iskender Bey) (1405–1468), 243

Skilling, H Gordon, 836Sklavenit, T E, 361Sklenár, Juraj (1745–1790), 450, 479,

529, 815Skobel, F K, 406Skok, Petar, 217, 220, 222, 242Skopje (Üsküb), 28, 245, 250–3, 255, 287,

331, 333Skorupka, Stanisław (1906–1988), 625, 640Škultéry, Jozef, 553, 562, 757, 815, 816,

843–4, 849, 859–60SL’S (Slovenská l’udova strana) (SL’S,

Slovak Peasant Party), 556, 750, 827,Sládkovic, Andrej (1820–1872), 547Slav Congress (see Pan-Slav Congress)Slav, The (epic poem, 1839, Buda),

479–80, 535Slaveikov, P R (1827–1895), 283Slaveno-Bulgarian, 279–80, 351, 354Slaveno-Russian, 280, 351Slaveno-Ruthenian, 176, 390–2, 744–5Slaveno-Serbian, 176, 222–5, 227, 279,

351, 353, 390, 745slavery, Roma, 263, 328, 329, 831, 495,

831, 974(n.23)Slavic, 158

literacy, 291Pannonian, 120, 534vernacular, 87, 131, 133, 135, 152–4,

221, 227, 232, 233, 247, 247, 248,250, 278, 291, 292, 436, 470, 526,535, 806–7

West/East, 153, 169, 478, 527, 563, 643,written in Cyrillic, 27, 70, 140–1, 152–3,

233, 247, 285, 744see also Slavonic

Slavic-Bulgarian History (1762), 278Slavonia, 19, 50, 121, 129, 221–3, 237,

239, 289, 293, 432, 435, 443, 454,456, 457, 460, 464, 467, 483, 488,540, 549, 553, 569, 650, 652–4, 656–7,660–3, 667–70, 676–7, 697, 710, 717,731, 742, 830, 876, 926

see also Croatia-SlavoniaSlavonian, 221, 225, 436, 460, 662Slavonic, 28, 33–5, 39–41, 43, 48, 50,

68–70, 73, 81–2, 87–9, 97, 99, 101,108–9, 112–14, 119, 127–8, 131–2,140, 143, 150–6, 158–65, 171, 174–6,180, 198, 204–7, 212, 218–25, 227–8,

236, 247–9, 252, 254–6, 260, 271,276–80, 282–5, 287, 289, 291, 294,308, 310, 325, 341, 350–7, 359–62,371–2, 385–6, 390–1, 417, 419, 421,435, 451, 470, 473, 477, 478–9, 506,526, 528–9, 544, 555–6, 583, 674, 705,718, 744–5, 823, 891, 961(n.29),966(n.10), 970(n.28), 975(nn.27, 28),980(n.5)

Sláwy dcera (epic poem) (The Daughter ofSlava, 1824, Ofen [Pest]), 537

Slawenthum und die Welt der Zukunft,t Das(Slavdom and the World of theFuture, 1851), 550

Sławski, Franciszek (1916–2001), 626Słonski, Stanisław (1879–1959), 623Slováci. Vývin ich národného povedomia (The

Slovaks: Development of theirnational consciousness, 1906–1910,Turócszentmárton [Martin]), 814

Slovácko, 766, 791, 853–4, 984(n.4),991(n.7)

Slovak Academy of Sciences and Arts, 566,859, 860, 877, 878, 934

Slovak Academy of Sciences, 565, 566,778, 780, 795, 797, 833, 859, 860, 877,878, 879, 880, 882–3, 898, 901, 934

Slovak National Council, 548, 557, 721,771, 772, 788, 813, 827, 857, 861

Slovak national gathering, 548Slovak national movement, 132, 135, 349,

449, 527, 542–3, 547–8, 549, 552–7,559–61, 810–11, 815, 840, 848, 910,911–12, 960(n.23)

Slovak National Party, 552–3, 555–8, 562,720, 750, 827

see also SNS (Slovenská národná strana)Slovak national project, 814, 858Slovak Peasant Party, see SL’S (Slovenská

l’udova strana)Slovjak People’s Republic, 466, 731, 820–1Slovak Republic, 528, 657, 803, 838,

886, 888Slovak Socialist Republic, 485, 777,

866, 941Slovak workers’ movement, 555Slovák, origin of the ethnonym, 132, 750,

835, 886Slovak, 132, 541, 543, 546, 916, 984(n.3)

decline/rise of, 561, 767, 779, 842development of, 913dialects/vernacular, 133, 544–5, 956(n.1)

Index 1113

Eastern (Slovjak), 822as language of liturgy, 843New, 547, 551, 561as official language, 565, 566, 768, 838,

858, 902Old, 541purifying, 757, 859as separate language, 527standard, 131, 512, 527, 551, 731,

985(n.11)Western/Central, 531–2

Slovaken. Eine Ethnographische Skizze, Die(The Slovaks: An ethnographicoutline, 1875, Prague), 814

Slovak-Hungarian Treaty on Friendshipand Cooperation (1995), 888

Slovakia, 523, 525, 551–2autonomy, lack of, 749clerical-fascist regime, 877communism, fall of, 869Constitution (1939), 838, 852Constitution (1992), 853, 886culture, 547, 549, 552, 833, 839, 876Czech administration in, 840–1economy of, 789, 820, 832–3federalization of, 565independence, 765, 851, 885, 984(n.1)independent (1939–1945), 135, 519,

565, 789, 837industrialization of, 776marginalization of, 866minorities, national, 830–1, 856,

871, 888National Uprising (1944), 772, 857,

861, 864nation-state, 525, 768New, 886population composition, 740, 855, 869,

875, 889Republic (1939–1945), 528territorial changes, 819–20, 837–8,

854Slovakization, 133, 559, 690, 696, 775,

781–2, 863, 869, 871, 875,Slovaks, as victims, 820Slovar Akademii Rossiiskoi (Dictionary of

the Russian Academy [of Sciences],1789–1794, St Petersburg), 161

Slovar rossiisko-polskii- , sochinennyi poslovariam Akademii Rossiiskoi/Słownikrossyysko-polski uło ˙- zony podług˙słowników Akademii rossyyskiej

(Russian-Polish Dictionary, Compiledin Accordance with the RussianAcademy’s Dictionaries [of Russian],1825–1828, Warsaw), 382

Slovar sovremennogo russkogo literaturnogoiazyka (Dictionary of theContemporary Literary RussianLanguage, 1950–1965, Moscow), 164

Slovenia, 3–4, 13, 17, 20, 22–3, 37, 53, 54,57, 61, 63, 158, 221, 229, 246, 288,290, 291, 293, 295, 297, 298–300,358–9, 362, 457, 464, 630, 652, 661,668, 710, 718, 799, 885–6, 894, 964(n.57)

Slovenian Academy of Sciences andArts, 297

Slovenian national movement, 295, 299Slovenian, 13, 34–5, 37, 50–1, 53, 61, 81,

228–9, 231, 248, 285, 288–300, 303–4,340, 344, 345, 463, 467, 468, 477,491, 498, 526, 657, 676, 697, 886,898, 961(n.29), 964(n.57), 975(n.29)

Slovenish (Slavic) script (Glagolitic), 69Slovenská mluvnica pre stredné školy a

ucitelské ústavyˇ (The Slovak Grammarfor Secondary Schools and Teachers’Colleges, Nitra), 567, 844

Slovenská mluvnica so zváštnym zretel’om naprvavopis (The Slovak Grammar with aSpecial Attention Paid to the Rules ofCorrect Writing, 1919, Nitra), 844

Slovenská omladina (Slovak YouthAssociation, established in 1870), 553

Slovenská réˇé a jej miesto v rodineslovanských jazykov (The SlovakLanguage and Its Place in the Familyof the Slavic Languages, 1906,Turócszentmárton [Martin]), 527

Slovenská reˇ (periodical) (The SlovakLanguage), 567, 757, 845, 849, 860,876, 880, 933

Slovenské pohl’ady (periodical) (SlovakViews), 553, 562, 814

Slovenské ucené tovarišstvo (SlovakˇScientific Society), 533, 535

Slovenskje národnje noviniˇ (newspaper),450, 546

Slovenskje pohlad’i na vedi, umenia aliteratúru (Slovak Views on Science,Arts, and Literature, 1846–1848,1851–1852), 547, 553

1114 Index

Slovensko-ceský a cesko-slovenský slovnikrozdilných výrazov (Slovak-Czech andCzech-Slovak dictionary of words thatare different in both languages,Prague), 780, 883

Slovensko-ceský a cesko-slovenský slovníkrozdielnych výrazov (Slovak-Czech andCzech-Slovak Dictionary of the WordsThat Are Different in Both Languages,1997, Žilina), 898

Slovensko-ceský slovník (Slovak-CzechDictionary, Prague), 780, 882

Slovenský frazeologický slovník (The SlovakPhraseological Dictionary, 1931,Trnava), 567, 849

Slovenský jazyk, 860Slovenský naucný slovník (The Slovak

Scientific Dictionary: A short universalencyclopedia in three volumes, 1932,Bratislava and Prague), 514, 849

Slovenský pravopis (The Principles ofSlovak Orthography, 1890, Budapest),563, 842

Slovensky prestolny prosbopis (SlovakRegional Written Request), 449

Slovenský slovnik z literatúry aj náreci (TheSlovak Dictionary With Words TakenFrom Literary Works and Dialects,1924, Banská Bystrica), 564, 848, 850

Slovincian, 28, 986(n.2)Slovjak (East Slovak), 466–7, 657,

820, 822see also sariskij (Sáros) jazik

Slovjak national movement, 466, 821–2Slovjak v Amerike (newspaper) (Slovjak in

America), 821Slovjak (East Slovak) People’s Republic,

466, 657, 731, 820, 821–2Slovjaks, 11, 132, 466, 657, 731, 821–3,

840, 854, 875, 990(n.2)Slovnícek staré ceštiny (The Little Dictionary

of Old Czech, 1947, Prague), 786Slovník inojazycný (The Dictionary of

Foreign Words, 1922, Bratislava, andsecond edition, 1932, Žilina), 849

Slovník k ceským spisum Husovým (TheDictionary of Hus’s Czech-LanguageWritings, 1934, Prague), 764

Slovník naucný (Scientific Dictionary[Encyclopedia], 1860–1874,Prague), 514

Slovník slovenského jazyka (The Dictionaryof the Slovak Language, 1959–1968,Bratislava), 135, 534, 625, 778,879, 880

Slovník slovenskej, mad’arskej a nemeckej reci(The [Trilingual] Dictionary of theSlovak, Magyar and GermanLanguages), 563, 846

Slovník slovensko-ceský a cesko-slovenský(The Slovak-Czech and Czech-SlovakDictionary, 1896, Rózsahegy[Ružomberok]), 564, 847

Slovnik slovenskoceský (The Slovak-CzechDictionary [of Words That AreDifferent in Both Languages], 1920,Prague), 565, 847

Slovník slovenský a mad’arský dl’a JosefaLoosa (The Dictionary of the Slovakand Magyar Languages Compiled inAccordance with the Principles ofJozef Loos’s Dictionary, 1906,Budapest), 564, 846

Slovník slovenských nárecí (The Dictionaryof the Slovak Dialects, 1994–2005,Bratislava), 899

Slovník spisovné ceštiny pro školu a verjnost(The Dictionary of Written Czech forSchools and the General User, 1978,Prague), 785, 796

Slovník spisovného jazyka ceského (TheDictionary of the Written CzechLanguage, 1957–1971, Prague), 625,785, 796

Slovník spisovného jazyka slovenského (TheDictionary of the Written SlovakLanguage, 1946–1949, TurcianskySvätý Martin), 777, 877, 878

Slovník staroceský (The Old CzechDictionary, 1903–1913, Prague), 627

Slovník súcasného slovenského jazyka (TheDictionary of the ContemporarySlovak Language, 2006–, Bratislava),797, 900, 901

Slowakei. Der jüngste Staat Europas, Die(Slovakia: The Youngest State ofEurope, 1939, Leipzig), 566

Slowanské starožitnosti (Slavic Antiquities,1837, Prgaue), 479, 540

Slowanský národopis (Slavic Ethnography,1842, Prague), 540

Slowár Slowenski Cesko-Lat’insko-Nemecko-Uherskí seu Lexicon Slavicum

Index 1115

Bohemico-Latino-Germanico-Ungaricum(The Slovak Dictionary:Czech-Latin-German-Magyar,1825–1827, Buda), 134, 534

Slowesnost (Word-Formation, 1820,Prague), 493

Słownik dokładny jezyka polskiego ieeniemieckiego / Vollständigespolnisch-deutsches Wörterbuch (TheExact Dictionary of the Polish andGerman Dictionaries, 1806, Breslau[Wrocław]), 379

Słownik etymologiczny jezyka polskiegoee (TheEtymological Dictionary of the PolishLanguage, 1927, Cracow), 605, 763,932, 945

Słownik etymologiczny jezyka polskiegoee (TheEtymological Dictionary of the PolishLanguage, 1952-1982, Cracow),626–7, 763, 945

Słownik etymologiczny jezyka polskiegoee (TheEtymological Dictionary of the PolishLanguage, 2005, Cracow), 643

Słownik gwar polskich (Dictionary of thePolish Dialects, 1900–1911, Cracow),405, 606, 626

Slowník jazyka ˇeskéhoˇ (Dictionaryof the Czech Language, 1937,Prague), 515

Słownik Jezyka Polskiego podług Lindego ieeinnych nowszych ´ródel´ (The Dictionaryof the Polish Language, Compiled inAccordance with Linde’s [Dictionary]and Other Newer LexicographicWorks, 1866, Berlin), 426

Słownik jezyka polskiego XVI wiekuee (TheDictionary of the 16th-Century PolishLanguage, 1966–, Wrocław), 627

Słownik jezyka polskiegoee (The Dictionary ofthe Polish Language), 116, 378, 397,415, 424, 426, 427, 534, 604, 606,625, 626, 628, 640, 643, 932

Słownik ortoepiczny (The Dictionary ofCorrect Writing, 1937, Warsaw),623, 682

Słownik polskich błedów jeee ˛zykowychee (TheDictionary of Polish Linguistic Errors,1947, Warsaw), 623

Słownik poprawnej polszczyzny (TheDictionary of Correct Polish, 1973,Warsaw), 625–6, 641

Slownik slowenskej, mad’arskej a nemeckejreciˇ (The [Trilingual] Dictionary of theSlovak, Magyar and GermanLanguages), 563, 846

Słownik staropolski (The Old PolishDictionary, 1953–2002, Warsaw), 517,627, 763, 947

Słownik wilenski´ (Słownik jezyka polskiegoee )(The [Vilnius] Dictionary of the PolishLanguage, 1861, Vilna [Vilnius]),426

Słownik wymowy polskiej (The Dictionaryof Polish Pronunciation, 1977,Warsaw), 626

Słownik jezyka polskiegoee (by Linde) (TheDictionary of the Polish Language,1807–1814, Warsaw), 116

Słownika jezyka polskiegoee (by Karłowicz)(Dictionary of the Polish Language,1900–1927, Warsaw), 116, 378,397

Słownika jezyka polskiegoee (by Szymczak)(The Dictionary of the PolishLanguage, 1978–1981, Warsaw), 626,908, 911, 917

Slownjk ˇeskoˇ -nemeckýˇ (The Czech-GermanDictionary, 1835–1839, Prague), 107,117, 493, 534, 536, 762, 763, 796,906, 911, 913, 917, 933

Slunzakian,581, 582, 612, 727, 791, 821, 951

see also Silesian, SzlonzokianSlunzakian national movement, 581,

582, 821Slunzaks, 14, 502, 581, 612, 717, 722,

727–9, 732–3, 739, 774, 791–2, 821,824, 895, 930

Šmahel, František, 480, 489, 502Smal’-Stots’kyi, Stepan (1859–1938), 177Šmejkalová, Jirina, 883ˇŠmihula, V, 904Šmírbuch jazyka ˇeskéhoˇ . Slovník

nekonvencni ˇˇ ceštinyˇ (The Trash-Book ofthe Czech Language: A dictionary ofunconventional Czech, 1988, 1992,2005, Prague), 800

Smith, Graham, 173, 275, 316, 327Smith, Michael G, 167, 269, 340, 851,

963(n.47)Smolej, Viktor, 886Smotrytskyi, Meletii (1578–1633), 154

1116 Index

SN-D (StronnictwoNarodowo-Demokratyczne)(National-Democratic Party), 399,400, 412

Snem (Diet), Bohemian/Moravian, 102Sniadecki, Jan (1756–1830), 373SNJ (Organization of Slovak National

Unity), 857see also Slovak National Council

SNR (Slovak National Council), 857–8,861, 862, 864–6, 877, 888

SNRvL (Slovenská národná rada vLondýne) (Slovak National Council inLondon), 857, 861

SNRvZ (Slovenská národná rada vzahranící) (Slovak National CouncilAbroad), 861

SNS (Slovenská národná strana) (SlovakNational Party), 552, 555–7, 562, 720,721, 750, 827–8, 836, 843

Snyder, Louis L, 476Snyder, Timothy, 71, 112, 157, 168–9,

175, 181, 185, 186, 190, 376, 384,388, 398, 403, 465, 476, 614

Sobota, Emil, 519, 730, 748, 766, 770social cohesion, and language, 7social determinism, 922social engineering, 150, 331, 893, 938,

939, 953social sciences, 44, 210, 298, 764, 897,

922, 942, 957(n.4)Societas Excolendae Linguae Slavicae

(Society for the Teaching of theSlavic/Slovak Language), 533

Societas Slavica (Slavic Society), 535, 543Societas Slavobohemica (Slavobohemian

Society), 535Society of Jesus, 89, 103–4, 115, 134, 532Sociolect (French, Latin), of

Polish-Lithuanian nobility, 111, 119,369–70, 597–8, 701

sociolinguistics, 35, 44Sofia, 28, 229, 250, 251–4, 277, 278, 283,

284–5, 286, 287–8, 527, 625Sogdian, 264, 965(n.5)Šokci, 239, 240, 469, 662–3, 686–8Sokol (falcon) gymnastics association, 507Šolc, Jindrich, 491, 493, 500Solidarity, 509, 628–9, 636Sollen wir Magyaren werden (Should We

Become Magyars?, 1833, Karlstadt[Karlovac]), 542

Soltész, Elizabeth, 131, 136, 344Sopron (Ödenburg), 299, 431, 661Sorbian, 27, 81, 150, 183, 290, 301–6,

334, 344, 348, 404, 417, 477, 489,540, 567, 643, 729, 730, 977(n.42)

Sorbian National Committee, 305Sorbian national movement, 302, 305,

729–30Sorbs of Lusatia, 218, 290, 301sovereignty, 20, 24, 39, 205, 578, 592, 757,

761, 788, 789, 949Sovetsk (Tilsit), 188Soviet Union, 2, 4–5, 19–22, 24, 27, 36–7,

41, 51–2, 54, 85–6, 91, 120, 148, 164,170–3, 175, 177–8, 189–90, 195, 200,213–14, 251, 255, 268, 270, 272,274–5, 310–11, 314–15, 326, 330–1,339–40, 352, 356, 358–9, 362–3, 405,413, 458, 525, 569, 570–1, 575, 586,591, 603, 609, 610–15, 617–20, 626,630, 631, 641, 666–7, 679, 687, 688,689, 690–1, 694, 696, 699, 702, 707–8,722, 728, 753, 765, 766, 771, 772–5,778, 783, 799, 804–5, 839, 864, 686,873, 884, 909, 920, 922, 925–7, 936–8,939–42, 948, 953, 956(n.3), 962(n.42),963(n.46), 971(n.7), 972(n.12),984(n.1), 989(nn.2, 3), 991(n.9)

see also Moscow, Russian Empire,St Petersburg

Soviet-Czechoslovak cooperation(1943), 857

Sovietization, 12, 36, 586, 693Sozan, Michael, 671, 674Soziolinguistik. Ein Handbuch zur Sprach-und

KommunikationswissenschaftSoziolinguistik / Sociolinguistics: Aninternational handbook of the science oflanguage and society (1987–1988,Berlin), 44

Spanish, 1, 28, 31–2, 35, 40, 41–2, 59, 74,76, 82, 90, 95–6, 103, 113, 143, 182,261, 316–20, 329, 334, 338, 361, 419,420, 472, 631, 644, 852, 903, 957(n.3),978(nn.48, 52)

Spanyol, 142, 317see also Ladino

Spinoza, Baruch (1632–1677), 318Spira, Thomas, 453, 685Spires, Scott, 186, 430Spiš/Spisz (Szepes, Zips), 530, 556, 578,

582, 584, 587, 609, 610, 611, 732,

Index 1117

733, 774, 822, 823, 824, 828, 830,837, 854, 871

Spisovná ceština a jazyková kulturaˇ (WrittenCzech and Language Culture, 1932,Prague), 517

spisovná ceštinaˇ , 506–7, 516–17, 533, 642,758–60, 763–4, 784–5, 796, 800–1, 845,

see also Czech, obecná ceštinaˇSpolek milovníkov reci a literatúryˇ

slovenskej (Society of Lovers of theSlovak Language and Literature), 541

Spravochnii entsiklopedicheskii slovar(Encyclopedic Dictionary, 1847-1855,St Petersburg), 407, 408

Sremski Karlovci (Karlóca, Karlofça,Karlowitz), 125, 204, 223

Šrobár, Vavro (1867–1950), 730–1SSNJ (Strana slovenskej národnej jednoty)

(SSNJ, Party of Slovak National Unity),837–8, 852

Staatsprache (state language), 390, 596Stachowski, Stanisław, 275, 327Stadtmüller, Karol (father), 405, 607Stadtmüller, Karol (son), 405, 607Stalin, Joseph (1879–1953), 22, 570, 575,

659, 687, 920, 936standardization, of language, 10, 27, 38,

74, 83, 85, 92, 94, 107, 117, 123, 136,161, 186, 191, 195, 210, 286, 282,294, 300, 306, 314–15, 325, 332–3,378, 380–1, 391–2, 425–7, 438, 440,461, 505–6, 564, 638, 648, 760, 846,860, 861, 891, 908, 931, 954, 957(n.7)

Czech, 102, 107, 117, 122, 425, 467,494, 505, 506, 533, 537, 541, 546,642, 741, 744, 759–60, 790, 807, 843

French, 42, 210, 979(n.1)German, 33, 48, 75–8, 80, 83, 84–5,

123, 294, 440, 927, 953, 986(n.20)Latin, 27, 35, 83, 92–3, 94, 96Lithuanian, 182, 184, 185–90, 973(n.17)Magyar, 122, 128, 130, 440–2, 461, 648,

677, 679, 680–1, 701, 703–4Polish, 34, 116, 118, 191, 373, 380, 381,

392, 404–5, 426–7, 579, 598, 608,621, 625–6, 631, 638, 641–3, 733,908, 960(n.23), 980(n.6), 981

Resian, 300Romanian, 203, 210, 211Russian, 152, 161, 162, 163, 351, 386,

390, 418, 744Serbo-Croatian, 228

Slovak, 34, 131, 134, 135, 136, 138,348, 466, 467, 469, 470, 512, 521,522, 528, 531, 546–7, 551–2, 564,567, 731, 763, 811, 814, 822, 842,844, 846, 860, 861, 880, 882, 889,933, 934, 985(nn.8, 11)

Tatar, 56, 58, 267, 268, 272, 274, 275Turkish, 56, 238, 266, 267, 268, 270,

273, 287, 476, 969(n.23)Yiddish, 314, 315, 316, 410, 601, 613

Stanek, Toma, 775ˇStang, Christian Schweigaard, 120, 157Stanisław August Poniatowski, King

(r.1764–1795), 115, 368, 369Stanislav, Ján (1904–1977), 877Stankevich, Ia, 169, 173Stankevich, Stanislau, 169, 173˘Stankievic, Janka, 142, 173Stankiewicz, Edward, 28, 35, 71, 100, 110,

111, 133, 135, 162, 164, 299, 307,371, 379, 384, 417, 481, 567

Stanowisko mowy Słowaków (On thePosition of the Slovak Language,1937, Warsaw), 528

Staroceský slovníkˇ (The Old CzechDictionary, 1968-, Prague), 517,786, 947

Starý národ – mladý štát (old nation –young state, 1994, Bratislava), 528

statethe modern, 39rise of the, 6, 7, 24, 33, 39, 53, 71, 114,

138, 144, 175, 222, 235, 243, 286,303, 408, 451, 503, 560, 598, 650,711, 840, 975(n.27)

statehood legitimization, 24, 31, 42, 105,390, 399, 529, 569, 571–2, 575, 615,699, 922

statehood, national, 9, 217, 254, 478, 609,683, 753, 761, 791, 807, 809–10, 834,862, 866, 890

Stati, Vasile, 214, 976(n.30)Statorius Petrus, 109Stauter-Halsted, Keely, 403Štefánik, Milan Rastislav (1880–1919),

512, 557, 719-20, 813, 817–19Stegner, Willi, 235, 242, 976(n.36)Steier, Louis, 521Steinthal, Heyman (1823–1899), 46Stepka, Stanisław, 619eestereotypes, of Central Europe, 505,

1118 Index

Steven Spielberg Digital YiddishLibrary, 316

Stevenson, Patrick, 86Stieber, Zdzisław, 527–8Stimmen der Völker in Liedern (folk songs)

(The Voices of Peoples Expressed inTheir Songs, 1778–1779, Leipzig), 538

Stodvadsat’ pät’ rokov zo slovenského života(One Hundred and Twenty-Five Yearsfrom the Life of the Slovak Nation,1918, Turciansky Svätý Martin), 816

Stoianov, Mano, 355Stojenski, Piotr, 109Štokavian, 50, 221–2, 224–6, 229–31, 234,

236–9, 240, 291, 443, 444, 467, 469,475(n.29)

see also Cakavian, Kajkavian,Serbo-Croatian

Stolc, Jozef, 796, 881Stomma, Ludwik, 372, 384, 981(n.16)Stone, Daniel, 19, 66, 92, 125, 186,

253, 934Straná narodná (National Party), 507, 508Stražas, A S, 183, 185Strucná mluvnice cesko-slovenská (A Short

Czech-Slovak Grammar, 1919,Prague), 565, 844

Strucný slovník etymologický jazykaceskoslovenského (The ShortEtymological Dictionary of theCzechoslovak Language, 1933,Prague), 605, 763, 785, 933, 945

Struve, Kai, 167, 588Štúr, L’udovít (1815–1856), 449–50, 512,

522, 543–8, 550, 552, 556, 559–61,562–4, 646, 718, 720, 744, 809, 812,815, 824, 843, 845, 859, 880–1, 899,900, 911, 918, 934, 960(n.23),985(nnn.11, 12, 13),

Štúrovciná, 546–7, 549, 550, 551, 911Styria, 15, 288ff, 290, 292ff, 294–7,

467, 726Subacius, Giedrius, 185, 186, 190, 192,

972(n.13)Subotica (Maria-Theresiopel, Szabadka),

239, 240, 469, 663Subtelny, Orest, 168, 172, 175Subcarpathian Ruthenia (see Carpathia,

Transcarpathian Ruthenia)Sudeten Mountains, 218

Sudetenland, 20, 51, 85, 486, 610, 667,675, 726, 729, 753–4, 764, 766–7, 774,837, 923, 925, 927

suffrage, 9, 43, 400, 511, 554, 555, 653,655, 660, 750, 812, 918, 962(n.40)

Czech lands, 511, 554, 655, 750Hungary, 9, 511, 554, 555, 653, 655,

660, 812, 918male, 400, 653, 660, 750, 918Slovak, 511, 554, 555, 750, 812, 918

Sugar, Peter F (1920–2000), 12, 143, 255,264, 279, 320, 327, 434, 958(n. 9),970(n.2), 983(n.10)

Suhaj, Janko, 829Sukiennicki, Wiktor, 168, 958(nn.9, 13)Šumavský, Josef Franta (1796–1857), 494Šumec, Andrej, 780, 882, 944,Sumerian, 67, 217, 476, 947, 974(n.26)Sun Theory of the Turkish language, 238,

267, 476Surosz, Mariusz, 771Surzhyk, 179, 192

see also Ukrainian, TrasiankaŠutaj, Štefan, 691, 775, 869Sutrop, Urmas, 201Sužiedelis, Saulius, 586Swabians, 72, 452, 673, 856Swatopluk (epic poem) (1835, Tyrnau

[Trnava]), 425, 479–80, 535, 853,991(n.6)

Sweden, 16–17, 23, 57, 67, 74, 81, 88, 114,193, 198, 333, 345–6, 971(n.6)

Swedish, 40–1, 50, 57, 82, 115, 163,193–4, 200–01, 272, 316, 334, 345–6,377, 421, 472, 669, 963(n.50),967(n.11), 971(n.6), 974(n.21)

Swiss German, 75–6, 78, 83, 85, 303see also Schwyzertüütsch

Switzerland, 5, 12, 40, 44, 56–7, 59, 76–7,79, 80, 83–5, 108, 300, 311, 344, 403,587, 679, 726, 926, 958(n.15),961(n.28), 962(n.40), 967(n.16)

Sylvester, János, 122Symeon I (r. 893–927), 249Synak, Bruno, 27, 581syntactical language, 7Syriac, 67, 258, 264, 308, 323, 419Syrmia, 19, 122, 982–3(n.10)Szálasi, Ferenc (1897–1946), 665Szamel, Dariusz, 275Szamosközi, István (1565–1612), 67, 143

Index 1119

Szarvas, Gábor (1832–1895), 461, 517,562, 627, 680, 846, 917, 947

Szász, Zoltán, 447, 455, 459, 815Szczawinska, Łarisa, 595Szczecin (Stettin), 375, 621Széchenyi, Ferenc (1754–1820), 440Széchenyi, István (1791–1860), 437, 441Szeged (Szegedin), 286, 456, 562, 658, 660,

677, 682, 687Székesféhervár (Stuhlweißenburg), 121,

482, 664Szeklers, 67, 121, 127, 450–1, 672–3, 687,

966(n.5), 990(n.1)Szelényi, Balázs A, 434, 439Széll, Kálmán (1843–1915), 462Szepes, 556, 578, 582, 584, 587, 732, 733,

823–4Szily, Kálmán (1838–1924), 462Szinnyei, József (1857–1943), 461,

517, 917Szlonzokian, 582, 592–3, 598, 609, 822,

892, 951, 987(n.12)see also Silesian, Slunzakian

Szlonzokian national movement,581, 582

Szlonzokians, 582, 592–3, 598, 609, 822,892, 951, 987(n.12)

Szlonzoks, 14, 581–2, 582, 585, 592–3,603, 612, 618, 619, 620, 636, 717, 722,727, 729, 732, 733, 775, 791, 854,873, 892, 895, 930, 940, 990(nn.5, 2)

Szober, Stanisław (1879–1938), 623, 682Szołtysek, Marek, 638Szombathely (Steinmanger), 299Szózat a Magyar és szláv nemzetiség ügyében

(An Appeal in the Cause of theMagyar and Slav Nationalities, 1843,Klausenburg [Cluj]), 447

Szulc, Aleksander, 27, 86Szultka, Zygmunt, 581Szybieka, Zachar, 172, 388, 398, 403, 411,

416, 586, 602, 613, 614, 616, 619Szyjkowski, Marian, 493Szylarski, Walenty (1730–1770), 109Szymborska, Wiesława, 955Szymczak, Mieczysław (1927–1985), 626,

640, 641

Taczanowski, Wacław, 405Tallinn (Reval, Revel), 190, 198, 199,

973(n.18)Tambor, Jolanta, 582

Táncos, Vilmos, 674Tarnów, 389Tartu (Dorpat), 193, 198, 199, 200, 376,

387, 395Taszycki, Witold (1898–1979), 624Tatras, the, 529, 537, 545–7, 553, 724,

823–4, 830, 837, 886, 991(n.6)Tatar, 56, 58, 66, 264, 267–8, 271–5, 323,

362, 476Crimean, 272

Tatarka, Dominik (1913–1989), 867,897, 904

Tatars, 63, 113, 119, 142, 157, 271–2, 275,639, 529, 537, 545–7, 553, 724, 823–4,830, 837, 886, 990(n.6)

Crimean, 272, 5Kazan (Volga), 273–5

Tatarstan, 55–6, 268, 274–5, 362Tatranskâ múza s lýrou slowanskou (poems)

(The Muse of the Tatras with a SlavicLyre, Leutschau [Levoca], 1814), 537ˇ

Tatrín (association), 450, 547, 552,982(n.9)

Tatry a more (poems) (The Tatras and theSea, 1879), 553

Taube, Friedrich Wilhelm von(1728–1778), 435

Taylor, Pauline, 152Tazbir, Janusz, 113–17, 367, 371–2, 619Tazbir, Julia, 591Technicky slovník naucnýˇ (Scientific

Dictionary of Technology: Illustratedencyclopedia of technical sciences,1927–1949, Prague), 514, 761, 933

Technisches Wörterbuch/Słownik techiczny(German-Polish Technical Dictionary,1913, Cracow), 405, 607

Teleki, Pál (1879–1941), 666Ternopil (Tarnopol, Ternopol), 588, 590territorial changes, 2, 585, 806, 924

to 18th century, 15–17, 41, 90, 106, 413,433, 509, 806

19th century, 17–18, 19, 90, 167, 197,279, 313, 413, 580, 609, 654, 686,815, 819, 821, 823, 921, 924,966(n.7)

20th century, 2, 6, 9, 19–22, 39, 41, 156,167, 197, 413, 554, 599, 609, 688,821, 919

21st century, 22–3, 949European Union, 13, 23, 298, 949post 1945, 2, 12, 21, 677, 937

1120 Index

territorial changes – continuedWorld War II, 2, 21, 90, 167, 584, 683,

688, 728, 935, 9376territorial division, models of, 30Teutonic law self-governments, 72Teutonic Order of Prussia, 193, 578Teutschen Sprache Stammbaum, oder

Teutscher Sprachsatz, Der (TheGenealogical Tree of the GermanLanguage, or the German Vocabulary,1691, Nuremberg), 83

Teutschen Vaterland, Des (poem) (TheGerman’s Fatherland), 400

Teyssler, Vladimír (1891–1958), 514, 761Tézy o slovencine (Theses on the Slovak

Language, 1966, Brartislava), 881,899–900

Thaden, Edward, 398Thám, Karel Ignác (1763–1816), 106Ther, Philipp, 36, 72Theresian and Josephine reforms, 437, 715Thesaurus ceského jazyka (Thesaurus of the

Czech Language, Prague, initiated in1905), 762

Thesaurus polono-latino-graecus-(Polish-Latin-Greek dictionary,1621–1632, Cracow), 110, 378

Thessaloníki (Salonika, Thessalonicae), 28,35, 81, 154, 158, 246, 247, 249, 254,318, 319, 354

Third Reich, 20, 36, 56, 173, 210, 284,297, 304–5, 339, 350, 570, 611, 614,617, 666–7, 727, 730, 753, 762, 764–5,767, 769, 770, 831, 839, 856, 861,870, 893, 925, 927–8, 933–7, 939,974(n.20), 978(n.49)

see also Berlin, GermanyThirty Years’ War, 69, 88, 292, 302Thrace, 20, 126, 284Tichý, František, 357, 748Tighe, Carl, 585Tihany, Lesie C, 661Timiosara (Temeschwar-Josephstadt,

Temesvár), 694, 695, 982(n.10)Timon, Samuel (1675–1736), 528, 819Tîrgu-Mures (Marosvásárhely, Neumarkt),

440, 694–5Tiso, Josef (1887–1947), 665, 765, 774,

837, 851–2, 857–8, 861–2, 877Tisza, Kálmán (1830–1902), 458, 464Tisza (Theiss), 441, 458, 462, 464, 474,

553, 560, 659, 982(n.10)

Tito, Josip Broz, 331, 691, 975(n.29)TNW (Towarzystwo Naukowe

Warszawskie) (Scientific Society ofWarsaw), 398, 606

Todorova, Maria, 13, 141, 279, 285, 287Todosijevic, Bojan, 240, 663Tolkovyi slovar zhivogo velikorusskogo iazyka

(Explanatory Dictionary of theContemporary Great RussianLanguage, 1863–1866, Moscow),162, 394

Tollefson, James W, 26Tolstoy, Leo (1828–1910), 336, 337Toma, Peter A, 450, 456, 462, 513, 519,

549, 557, 559, 562Tomanek, Przemysław, 170, 175, 179Tomašik, Samo (1813–1887), 443Tomaszewski, Jerzy, 416, 486, 575, 587,

588, 591, 595, 599, 602, 693, 725,730, 734, 749, 753, 754, 766, 775,777, 790, 839, 987(nn.8, 9)

Tomescu, Mircea, 353Tooley, Hunt T, 72Topolinska, Zuzanna, 581Topolska, Maria Barbara, 71, 113, 152,

157, 182, 183, 197, 388Toporišic, Jože, 299Tornow, Siegfried, 86, 124, 126, 162,

225–6, 228, 240, 275, 301, 320, 439,440, 472, 480, 493, 507, 510,969(n.26)

Törnquist-Plewa, Barbara, 103, 111, 133Török, Zsuzsanna, 672Tosk, 54, 217, 241–6, 258, 960–61(n.26)Tót (Magyar pejorative for ‘Slovak,’ ‘Slav’),

447–8, 563, 686–7Tóth, István György, 127, 148Totius Latinitatis Lexicon (The Entire

Lexicon of Latin, 1771, Padua), 96Tov, Baal Shem, 312TPN (Towarzystwo Przyjaciół Nauk)

(Society of Friends of Sciences), 377,380–1, 384, 386, 389, 392, 398, 429,980(n.6)

Traba, Robert, 580Trabant, Jürgen, 30, 45, 47, 440, 957(n.1),

959(n.16), 964(n.42)Trampe, Ludwig, 1, 11, 49translation industry, 95Transcarpathian Ruthenia (see Carpathia,

Subcarpathian Ruthenia)

Index 1121

Transnistria, 21, 23, 55, 141, 213–15, 270,353, 358

see also MoldovaTransylvania, 15–17, 20, 63, 66–7, 76,

88–9, 121–5, 127–9, 202–13, 217, 276,280, 325, 328–9, 352, 431–3, 433, 435,437, 439, 441, 447–8, 450–2, 454–7,463, 466, 472, 483, 523, 528, 549,654, 658–9, 661, 666, 668, 671–3, 680,687–8, 691, 693–5, 715, 731, 742, 825,833, 907, 915, 937, 942, 969,969(n.26), 970(n.30), 974(nn.23, 25),990(n.1)

Transylvanian Association for theCultivation of the Magyar Idiom, 440

Transylvanian School, 207, 451–2Trasianka, 174, 179, 192

see also Belarusian, SurzhykTrautmann, Reinhold, 181, 344Travnícek, František, 515–18, 520, 760,ˇ

762, 764, 784–5, 879, 933Treadgold, Donald W, 12, 958(n.9)Treaty

of Adrianopole (1829), 451of Berlin (1878), 249, 975(n.27)on Brest Litovsk (1918), 411of Good Neighbourliness and

Cooperation, 634of Lausanne (1923), 48, 262, 975(n.27)of Protection (1939), 838of Riga (1921), 412, 413, 577, 589of Saint-Germain (1919), 657, 660, 670,

726, 736–8, 741, 743, 765, 816, 820,826–7, 828

of San Stefano, 249of Trianon (1920), 660, 665, 670, 684,

732, 737, 820, 826,of Versailles (1919), 188, 413, 577, 660,

664, 726, 728, 936, 946, 989(n.1)of Westphalia (1648), 39, 90, 472

Treder, Jerzy, 638Trenchin, Matthaeus a (1260–1321), 815Treštík, Dušan, 482, 483, 753ˇTriest, Felix, 288, 295, 324, 489Trieste (Triest, Trst), 21, 288, 324Tripartite Pact, 666Tripartitum, 125–6Trnava (Tyrnau, Nagyszombat), 432, 434,

479, 528, 533, 567, 847, 848, 849,859, 887, 991(n.5)

Trotz, Michał Abraham (1703–1769), 378Trudgill, Peter, 149, 264

Trylcová, Elena, 535ˇTrylogia (The Trilogy, 1884–1888,

Warsaw), 415Trzcionowski, Lech, 418Tschechei, 485–6

see also Czech RepublicTsiapinskii, Vasil (1540–1603), 154Tsonov, Beno (1863–1926), 527Tuka, Vojtech (1880–1946), 750, 751, 774,

835, 845, 861, 862Turciansky Svätý Martin (Martin, Sanktˇ

Martin, Turócszentmárton), 462, 483,513, 527, 545, 554, 561, 566, 657,720–1, 757–8, 777–8, 700, 816, 820,833, 835, 843, 845, 847, 859, 877,992(n.15)

Turciansky Svätý Martin (ˇ seeTurócszentmárton)

Turk, origins of name, 250, 264Turkey, Republic of, 21, 23, 31, 41, 48, 52,

56, 57, 148, 238, 254, 256, 262,265–70, 284–5, 287, 319, 321, 324,330, 358, 361, 363, 476, 470, 689,975(n.27), 978(n.48)

Turkic, 23, 34, 56, 63, 66–7, 69, 71, 87,113, 120–1, 126, 130, 141–2, 204, 218,247, 256, 259–75, 282, 285, 287, 317,321, 323, 325, 341, 362, 474–6, 646,672–3, 808, 946, 962(n.45), 963(n.50),965(n.5), 966(nn.6, 8), 967(n.11),969(n.24), 977(nn.39, 40)

Turkish Grand National Assembly(1922), 266

Turkish Language Society, 267, 268, 270Turkish nation-state, 51, 267, 977(n.38)Turkish, 41, 48, 51, 56–7, 82, 88, 114, 122,

126, 137, 141, 207, 209, 220, 233,238, 250, 254–6, 258, 259, 261–70,273, 275–7, 284–5, 287, 319–20, 323,328–30, 341–2, 354, 360–3, 410, 465,471, 475–6, 415, 961(nn.28, 30),963(n.45), 969(n.23), 977(n.38)

Tatar, 268see also Sun Theory of the Turkish

languageTurkish/Russia, relationship, 268Turócszentmárton (see Turciansky Svätýˇ

Martin)Tuvalu, 28, 32, 60Tuvaluan, 28, 60Tvrdý, Peter, 567, 847, 848, 849, 851,

1122 Index

Twelve points (Hungarian War ofIndependence, 1848–1849), 454

Tymoshenko, P D, 171Tymowski, Michał, 8Tyrol, 18, 19, 57, 726Tyrs, Miroslav (1832–1884), 507Tyszka, Krzysztof, 619

Über die Wechselseitigkeit zwischen denverschiedenen Stämmen und Mundartender slawischen Nation (On theReciprocity Between the Tribes andVernaculars of the Slavic Nation,1837, Pest), 477, 539, 718

Ueber den Ursprung und die verschiedenartigeVerwandtschaft der europäischenSprachen (On the Emergence andVariegated Interrelatedness of theEuropean languages, 1818, Frankfurtam Main), 477

Ueberlieferungen zur Geschichte unserer Zeit(journal), 539

Uhersko/Uhorsko, 484, 646, 647, 984(n4)Uhry, 646, 984(n.4)Új idok lexikona (The Lexicon of New

Times, 1936–1942, Budapest),682, 932

Új lexikon (The New Lexicon, Budapest),682, 932

Új magyar lexikon (The New MagyarLexicon, 1936, Budapest), 705

Új magyar tájszótár (The New Dictionary ofthe Magyar Dialects, 1979–2002,Budapest), 705, 947

Ujlaki, Bálint, 122Ukraine

Carpathian, 470, 665, 686–7, 766–7, 928Dnieper, 388, 411–13, 585, 589independent, 177–8, 400, 412, 558, 656,

659, 735, 804, 891national republic, Western, 411,

981(n.15)partitioning of, 412Soviet, 21, 36, 51, 53, 55, 177–9,

212–13, 314, 412, 577, 586, 590,603, 609, 610, 613, 616, 618, 625,687, 747, 754, 767, 772, 778, 846,858, 872, 930, 936, 938, 992(n.13)

Ukrainian / Russian creole, 179see also Trasianka

Ukrainian National Council, 778, 874,992(n.13)

Ukrainian National Council of the PrešovRuthenia, 874

Ukrainian national movement, 168, 175,401, 590, 767, 873

Ukrainian Republic, People’s National, 411Ukrainian states, 971(n.9)Ukrainian (see Little Russian, Ruthenian)

as official language, 179, 687, 872restrictions on, 78, 170, 187, 556

Ukrainians, 14, 36, 54-5, 119–20, 114, 158,167–8, 175, 177, 178–9, 212, 215, 340,355, 388, 401, 409, 412, 471, 497,583, 585–6, 589–91, 593–4, 597,599–600, 603, 611–12, 614–16,618–19, 628, 635–7, 639, 647, 656,678, 686, 697, 698, 739, 743, 746,767, 778, 781–4, 820, 871, 873–5, 890,892–3, 939, 960(n.25), 972(n.8),985(n.12), 987(n.6), 992(n.14)

Ulfilas (Wulfila), 965(n.5)Ulianov, N, 358uncial Latin cursive, 92unemployment, Slovakia, 634, 726, 749,

789, 792, 896,Uniate Church, 89, 119, 127, 140, 153,

204, 208, 355, 385, 395, 602,970(n.30)

see also Greek Catholic Church,Neo-Uniate Church

Uniates, 127, 139, 140, 146, 156, 208, 371,373, 388, 390, 403, 410, 435, 450–1,470, 594, 744, 783, 973(n.19)

Union of Brzes´´c (1596) (Brest in´Belarusian), 155

Union of Estonian Writers, 199Union of Germans from Bohemia,

Moravia, and Silesia for thePreservation of their Nationality, 498

Union of Lublin (1569), 16Unitas Fratrum (Czech Brethren), 101

see also Jednota bratrskáUnited Nations Organization, 31United States, postwar role, 925Universal Esperanto-Asocio, 337universities

Albanian (Gheg), 241–3, 245Bulgarian, 283Cluj, 694Cracow, 374, 375, 377, 379, 381, 383–4,

390, 392, 397, 405, 614Czech, 554, 560, 741, 769, 809, 810,

843, 984, 757, 769, 783, 984(n.7)

Index 1123

Dorpat, 198–9, 387, 395Gagauz, 270German-medium, 198, 211Halle, 83, 161Kaunas, 188Kolozsvár, 682, 694Komenský (Slovak), 520, 562, 566, 843,

859–60, 878Lublin, Catholic, 604, 621, 641Lwów, 369, 392, 401, 601, 613, 621Marburg, 161Moscow, 161Pest, 439, 449, 459, 551Polish, The Free, 384, 604, 613–14, 621Poznan, 604´Prague Technical, 508Prague, 105, 491, 504Prešov, 891Romanian-language, 35, 65, 209,

247, 937St Vladimir, 385Serbian, 223Simferopol, 275Slovak, 724, 747, 752, 833, 859, 860, 878Slovenian, 297Torun, 377, 621, 677´Vilnius, 375, 376, 381–2, 385, 387, 613Warsaw, 188, 336, 381, 386, 387, 408,

429, 433, 604–6, 640Wilno, 369, 373, 604, 607, 677Wrocław, 621

Universum. Všeobecná encyklopedie(Universum: The UniversalEncyclopedia, 2000, Prague), 712,796, 797, 950

Uniwersalny Słownik jezyka polskiegoee (TheUniversal Dictionary of the PolishLanguage, 2003, Warsaw), 641

Unua Libro (La lingvo internacia(( , 1887,Warsaw), 336–37

Úplný némeckoceský slovníkˇ (CompleteGerman-Bohemian Dictionary,1843–1847, Prague), 494

Upper Hungary (see Slovakia)Upper Saxonian (Meissen), 76, 79, 83–4uprising, January (1863–1864), 18, 392,

393, 394, 396uprising, November (1830–1831), 384,

386, 388,uprising, Polish (1846), 389uprising, Slovak National (1944), 772, 857,

861, 864, 991(n.11)

uprisings (revolts), Silesian (1919, 1920,1921), 581

Úprk, Joža, 853Urbanczyk, Przemysław, 8, 63, 67,´

220, 299Urbanczyk, Stanisław, 112, 627, 947´urbanization, Hungary, 574, 595, 700,

756, 784Usien, Joanna, 113, 143´Uspenskii, Boris A, 398Ústav pre zahranicných Slovákovˇ

(Institute for the Study of the SlovakDiaspora), 860

Ústav pro jazyk ceský (Institute for theˇCzech Language), 762

Uvarov, Sergei Semionovich (1786–1855),385, 393

Uzhhorod (Ungvár, Ungwar, Uzhgorod,Uz’horod), 127, 391, 432, 657, 698,736, 873, 891, 986(n.14)

Vaitiekus, Severinas, 636Vajk, King (r. 997–1038), see St Stephen,

King (r. 997–1038), 68, 474Vakar, Nicholas P, 167–8, 170, 173, 358,

398, 403, 602, 603, 614, 616Valla, Lorenzo (1407–1457), 343Valuev, Petr, Count (1814–1890), 394Vamvas, Neofitos (1770–1855), 261Vandals, language of the, 301, 303Várdy, Steven Béla, 72, 678, 691, 696–7,

698, 701Varga, János, 442, 445, 447, 464Varpas (periodical) (The Bell, 1889–1906,

Ragnit [Neman]), 185Varsik, Branislav, 768, 855Váša, Pavel (1874–1954), 515, 762, 764,

784, 879, 933Vasmer, Max, 167, 971(n.6)Vatican, the, 6, 57, 97–8, 140, 598, 623,

750, 855, 891, 975(n.27)Vatican Council, Second (1962–1965),

xvii, 6, 97, 140, 598Vavryk, M, 177, 179Vážný, Václav (1892–1966), 757, 835, 845,

849, 859, 878, 880, 881, 933, 934Vedomosti (newspaper), 160, 514, 552,

849, 934Velagic, Zoran, 222´Veleslavína, Danel Adam z (1546–1599),ˇ

101, 107, 110Velímský, Vitezslav, 24ˇ

1124 Index

Velká všeobecná encyklopedie (The GreatUniversal Encyclopedia, 2000–,Prague), 797, 950

velvet divorce (Czechoslovakia), 895, 897Venice, 16–17, 45, 80–2, 151, 216, 219–22,

242–3, 247, 260, 288, 290, 301, 324–6,353, 478, 968(n.18), 971(n.3)

Verdery, Katherine, 208Verfassungspatriotismus, 939Vergina Sun, 253vernacular languages, 6, 89, 96, 152,

420–01, 980(n.7)vernacular-turned-written language,

defence of, 45Vichian, 191–2Vico, Giovanni Battista (1668–1744), 30,

46, 62Vienna, 2, 16–19, 50, 72, 75, 76, 79–80,

82, 100, 101, 103–6, 108, 116, 122–3,125–30, 137–8, 144, 151, 166, 176–7,204–05, 207–08, 211, 222–7, 237, 269,278, 282–3, 291, 294–5, 297, 302, 313,324, 326, 353, 355, 365, 375–6, 378,380, 383–4, 389, 391, 400, 402, 404,408, 410, 411, 431–8, 441, 443–4, 449,450, 452–7, 460, 463, 468, 483–4,487–8, 498–500, 505, 507, 509–13,517, 519, 525, 538–9, 541, 548–50,552–3, 557, 559, 561, 569, 575–6,581–3, 588, 597, 653–4, 657, 659–60,665–7, 670, 684, 715, 717–19, 721,725–6, 730, 754, 760, 761, 770, 793,804, 807, 809–12, 820, 837, 844, 850,856, 906–7, 909, 912–14, 919–20, 929,960(n.24), 970(n.30), 975(n.29), 981(n.10), 982(n.10), 983(nn.10, 13)

Vienna Arbitration, Second, 666, 754Viereck, Wolfgang, 86Vilnius (Vilna, Wilno), 19–21, 81, 154–6,

169, 172–3, 180, 182, 185, 188–91,198, 272, 309, 314, 369, 373, 375–6,381–2, 385, 387, 396, 397, 400, 403,410–12, 414, 426–7, 429, 480, 570,577, 586, 590, 600, 610–11, 613,616–17, 621, 626, 677, 744, 930,973(n.18), 980(nn.6, 8), 987(n.9)

Violence, religious-cum-national, 53, 398,509, 584, 660, 726, 733

Vîrtosu, Emil, 353Visegrád, 121, 482Vistula, 18, 50, 147, 183, 375, 393,

396–400, 402–03, 407, 408, 413–15,

427–8, 577, 581, 590, 599, 605, 611,614, 669, 914–15, 981(n.12)

Vistula Land, 18, 50, 147, 393, 396–400,402–03, 408, 413–15, 427–8, 577, 581,599, 605, 611, 669, 914–15, 981(n.12)

see also Poland, (Congress) Kingdom ofVitsebsk/Vitebsk (Witebsk), 72, 158, 194,

196, 403Vlachs, 64, 202Vlasc a šerco (poems) (Land and Heart,

1909, Kassa [Košice]), 821vlastenectví, 106, 496Vltava (Moldau), 436, 495Vlcek, Jaroslav (1860–1930), 815–16Vojvodina, 19–20, 37, 53, 58, 66, 122,

222–3, 226, 239–40, 286, 452, 455–7,469–71, 539, 545, 657–9, 661–3,666–7, 676, 686, 691, 697, 706–7, 710,717, 742, 830, 863, 875–6, 890, 902,940, 953, 963(n.49), 976(n.31),982(n.10), 983(n.10), 989(n.4)

Volapük, 337, 978(n.52)Volga, 45, 63, 65–6, 106, 271, 274–5, 386,

966(n.5), 977(n.40)Volgyes, Ivan, 699Volhynia, 15–17, 19, 165, 168, 376, 385,

408, 586, 590, 594, 597, 601, 603,616, 618, 775, 939, 971(n.5), 980(n.6),987(n.8)

Völker, 46, 495, 499, 500, 538, 920,957(n.4), 982(n.3), 984(n.5)

Völkerabfälle (ruins of peoples), 499, 500Völkerpsychologie (‘psychology of

nation’), 46, 49Volksgeist (spirit, genius, soul, or character

of the nation, people, or ethnicgroup), 46, 851

Volksgemeinschaft (nation in itsethnolinguistically homogenousnation-state), 851, 856, 927, 935,

Voloshyn, Avhustyn (Vološin, Augustin)(1874–1945), 745, 774

von Arndt, Christian Gottlieb(1743–1829), 477

von Bessenyei, György (1747–1811), 437von Caprivi, Leo (1831–1899), 404von Humboldt, Wilhelm (1767–1853),

46, 597von Löhner, Ludwig (1812–1852), 498von Taube, Friedrich Wilhelm

(1728–1778), 435Vongrej, Pavol, 349, 547

Index 1125

Voralberg, 726Võro, 200–01

see also SetoVõro-Seto, 200–1Vörösmarty, Michael, 437, 441–2, 454Vostokov, Aleksandr Khristoforovich

(1781–1864), 162vowels, long, 100, 122, 199, 422, 424–5vowels, nasal, 112, 423Vrchovský, Alexander Boleslav

(1812–1865), 815vulgari eloquentia, De (On the Eloquence of

Vernacular, 1303–1305, firstpublished in 1529), 45, 106, 111, 420,980(n.7)

Vulgate, the (Latin Bible), 69, 93–4, 100,123, 154, 228, 260–1, 304, 310, 537

Wajs, Bronisława (Papusza) (1910–1987),334

Walachia, 16, 48, 63, 81, 88–9, 97, 113,120–1, 127–8, 137, 139–41, 147, 151,156, 202–12, 216, 224, 247, 256, 258,260, 276–7, 282, 319, 328, 329, 352–3,361, 431, 435–7, 444, 446, 447, 451–2,454, 463, 471, 542, 551, 649, 663,672–3, 686–7, 715, 744, 831, 915,974(n.23, 25), 984(n.6), 990(n.1)

see also RomaniaWalachian, 81, 88–9, 97, 121, 127–8,

139–41, 202–08, 210–12, 216, 224,258, 276, 277, 282, 352–3, 431, 435–7,444, 446–7, 451–2, 454, 471, 542, 551,649, 663, 672–3, 686–7, 687, 715, 744,974(n.25), 984(n.6), 990(n.1)

see also RomanianWalachians, 121, 127, 140, 202–8, 212,

431, 435, 437, 444, 446–7, 451–2, 454,471, 542, 672, 715, 744, 990(n.1)

Walas, Teresa, 609Walaszek, Adam, 609Waldenberg, Marek, 398, 493, 510Waldstein, Abraham Solomon, 311Walicki, Andrzej, 371Walka o ortografieee (article) (The Struggle

Over Orthography, 1935–1936,Cracow), 606

Wanatowicz, Maria Wanda, 613Wandycz, Piotr S, 376, 379, 384, 392, 398,

958(n.9)Wapinski, Roman, 384, 388, 403´

War of Greek Independence (1821–1827),205

War of Independence (Hungary,1848–1849), 90, 445, 455, 649, 798,839, 907, 983(n.10)

war of lords, 384war reparations, Germany, 923Warmia (Ermland), 579–80, 584, 617, 925Warmiaks (Ermlanders), 578–9, 580–81wars

Balkan (1912–1913), 5, 250, 284Bosnia (1992–1995), 22, 231–2, 233,

286, 471, 710Cossack, 114Crimean (1853–1856), 209, 387Czechoslovak-Hungarian (1918–1919),

731, 714, 775, 804, 825, 828Czechoslovak-Polish (1919), 771,

787, 824see also Polish-Czechoslovak War

Great Northern (1700–1721), 17,958 (n.8)

Greek Civil (1946–1949), 251, 781Greek Independence (1821–1827), 205Hussite, 99, 100, 295, 503–4of Independence (Hungary, 1848–1849),

90, 445, 455–6, 649, 716, 798, 739,907, 916, 983 (n.10)

‘of lords’, 384Napoleonic, 17, 45, 47, 90, 108, 222,

294, 365, 377, 379, 381, 383–4,433–4, 439, 448, 487, 529, 908

Polish-Czechoslovak (1919), 582, 584,987 (n.8)

see also Czechoslovak Polish WarPolish-Soviet (1919–1921), 168, 412,

577, 589, 608, 618, 625Russo-Japanese (1904–1905), 398Seven Weeks’ (1866), 18, 365, 453Thirty Years’ (1618–1648), 69, 88,

292, 302World War I, 1, 6, 9, 19, 43, 51, 139,

147, 168, 177, 182, 211, 227–8, 239,244, 266, 299, 313, 319, 337–8, 347,349, 358, 361, 365, 401, 405–8, 443,456, 459, 465, 468, 476, 485, 500,512, 516–17, 523, 530, 551, 562–3,581, 587, 613–15, 630, 645-6, 652,684, 727, 766, 780, 813, 825, 893,903, 914, 916–18, 920, 923,935, 936

World War II, see World War II

1126 Index

Warsaw, 3, 17–18, 20, 22, 27, 81–2, 115,116–18, 167, 173, 177, 188, 255, 300,305, 309, 313–14, 332, 336–7, 339–40,370–82, 384, 386–7, 389, 392–3,397–8, 405, 407–9, 411–16, 424,427–30, 433, 435, 443, 482, 517,576–8, 582–5, 587–95, 598–9, 601–7,609–10, 612, 615, 619–27, 630, 633–4,636, 636–8, 640–3, 662, 665, 682, 692,695, 702, 706–7, 712, 721, 726–7, 729,731–3, 747, 754, 758, 763, 765, 775,777, 799, 823–5, 828, 830, 837, 871,892, 895, 907, 913, 924–5, 930–1, 935,937, 940–1, 948, 958(n.12), 973(n.18),987(n.8), 988(n.18), 991(n.6)

Warsaw Pact (see Warsaw TreatyOrganization), 630, 692, 695, 777,799, 937, 947

Warsaw Treaty Organization (see WarsawPact), 22

Warsaw, Duchy of, 3, 17–18, 20, 22, 27,81–2, 115, 116–18, 167, 173, 177, 188,255, 300, 305, 309, 313–14, 332,336–7, 339–40, 370–82, 384, 386–7,389, 392–3, 397–8, 405, 407–9,411–16, 424, 427–30, 433, 435, 443,482, 517, 576–8, 582–5, 587–95,598–9, 601–7, 609–10, 612, 615,619–27, 630, 633–4, 636, 636–8,640–3, 662, 665, 682, 692, 695, 702,706–7, 712, 721, 726–7, 729, 731–3,747, 754, 758, 763, 765, 775, 777,799, 823–5, 828, 830, 837, 871, 892,895, 907, 913, 924–5, 930–1, 935, 937,940–1, 948, 958(n.12), 973(n.18),987(n.8), 988(n.18), 991(n.6)

Warschauer Bibliothek (periodical)(Warsaw’s Library, 1753–1795), 370

Warta, 611Wartheland, 611–12

see also WielkopolskaWas ist das deutsche Vaterland? (poem)

(What is the German Fatherland?,1812), 47

Washington, 459, 721, 771, 857, 921,978(n.53)

Waterman, John T, 103Weaver, Eric Beckett, 217, 240, 476,

645, 674Weber, Eugen, 5, 24, 979(n.1)Webster’s Third New International

Dictionary, 316

Weiner, E S C, 99, 275, 309, 316, 335,962(n.42), 965(n.3), 967(nn.13, 14),968(n.16), 976(n.33), 977(n.43),983(n.10)

Weingart, Miloš (1880–1939), 517, 520,521, 537, 540, 545, 559, 567, 760, 764

Weinreich, Max, 1Weißruthenisch (White Ruthenian), 166,

172, 409,see also Belarusian

Welsch, 203, 289Welsh, 40, 82, 203, 289, 988(n.15)Wenden, 289, 290Wendisch, 290, 302, 477Weneds, 290Wesselényi, Miklós (1796–1850), 447Westmitteleuropa/Ostmitteleuropa, 12Wexler, Paul, 71, 142, 170, 311White Russia (Belarus), 166, 351, 357,

971(n.7), 973(n.19)White Russian (Belarusian), 50–1, 157,

168–71, 211–12, 357, 395–6, 398,401–2, 409, 411, 414, 585, 588–9, 602,669, 746, 971(n.7)

White Ruthenian (Belarusian), 50, 165,172, 188, 357–8, 358, 382, 394–5,409–11, 585, 588–9, 914, 930,930–1, 935

Wielka encyklopedia powszechna (The GreatUniversal Encyclopedia, 1962–1970,Warsaw), 627–8, 640–1, 712, 944, 950

Wielka encyklopedyja powszechnailustrowana (Great UniversalEncyclopedia with Illustrations), 407,605, 917

Wielka ilustrowana encyklopedja powszechna(The Great Illustrated UniversalEncyclopedia, 1929–1938, Cracow),605, 609, 640, 932

Wielkopolska, 117–18, 375, 377, 380, 400,403–4, 413, 417, 477, 576–7, 579, 584,592, 595, 599, 607, 611–12, 907

uprising (1918–1919), 576–7Wikipedia, 174, 190, 235–6, 334, 340, 641,

712, 900, 972(n.13), 978(n.51),979(n.53), 990(n.4)

Bosnian, 235–6Croatian, 235–6Czech, 990(n.4)Esperanto, 340Montenegrin, 236Magyar, 712

Index 1127

Polish, 641Romani, 334, 978(n.51)Serbian, 235–6Simple English, 978(n.53)Slovak, 900

Wilamowicean, 988(n.17)Wilson, Woodrow (1856–1924), 51, 366,

411, 559, 569, 576, 577, 652, 674,679, 717, 722, 731, 735, 921–2

Wilsonovo Mesto (Bratislava), 559Wincenty Kadłubek, Bishop (1150–1223),

418Winden (Windisch), 289Windisch, 288–90, 292, 294, 302, 477Winds, 289, 299, 467Winter, Eduard, 233, 499, 666, 972(n.12)Wisniewska, Katarzyna, 109, 638´Wojtyła, Karol (Pope John Paul II)

(1920–2005), 623Wolff, Christian (1679–1754), 161Wolff, Philippe, 99, 161, 421Wölke, Sonja, 307women, equality of, 8–9, 129, 145, 147–8,

312, 353, 370, 507, 621, 755, 870,901, 918–19, 954–5, 962(n.40)

Wood, Nancy, 12workers movement, 338, 555, 920World Congress of Esperanto (1905), 337World Congress of Rusyns (1991), 890World Congress of Rusyns, Fifth

(1999), 892World Council of Churches, 332World Gypsy Congress, 332World Roma Congress, Fourth (1990),

332, 334World War I, 1, 6, 9, 19, 43, 51, 139, 147,

168, 177, 182, 211, 227–8, 239, 244,266, 299, 313, 319, 337–8, 347, 349,358, 361, 365, 401, 405–8, 443, 456,459, 465, 468, 476, 485, 500, 512,516–17, 523, 530, 551, 562–3, 581,587, 613–15, 630, 645-6, 652, 684,727, 766, 780, 813, 825, 893, 903,914, 916–18, 920, 923,935, 936

World War II, 2, 5, 12, 21, 25, 28, 52–3,56, 60, 79, 86, 90–1, 97, 117, 119, 145,148, 167, 173, 178, 213, 229, 251, 269,272, 284, 297, 299, 300–2, 305, 311,315, 327, 331, 332, 339–40, 345, 347,356–8, 362, 405, 466, 474, 485, 489,495, 516, 520–1, 525, 565–6, 570–1,

584, 586, 590, 605–6, 608–10, 617,620, 623, 627–8, 632, 634, 640–1, 644,651, 666, 673, 678, 683, 688, 691, 697,727–8, 754, 758, 760, 762, 766, 770,783, 786, 795, 798, 824, 830–1, 839,858, 869, 872, 876–7, 890, 893, 902–3,913, 925, 932, 934–5, 937, 942, 952

Czech descent into, 764Slovakia, 2, 12, 332, 466, 489, 520–1,

525, 565–6, 570–1, 584, 610, 666,697, 754, 758, 766, 770, 783, 795,798, 824, 830–1, 839, 858, 869, 872,876, 877, 890, 893, 902–3, 913, 925,934–5, 937, 952

World Zionist Congress, 403Worth, Dean S, 4, 18, 23, 35, 138, 307,

356–8, 417, 508, 946Woyna (Wojna), Jan Karol (1605–1693),

109writing systems, 26, 33, 39, 56, 61, 367,

419, 422, 979(n.3)writing, 4, 7, 8–9, 25–6, 33–4, 38, 41, 43,

45, 50, 56, 58, 61, 64, 66, 67, 68, 76,85, 91, 95–6, 99, 107, 131, 135,114–15, 119, 137, 140–1, 144, 148–50,153–4, 157, 159, 160, 173, 179, 180,187, 191, 194, 196, 199, 200, 206,209, 212–14, 215, 218, 221–2, 224,227, 232–3, 239, 248, 253, 258, 266,268–9, 270, 272, 274, 277–9, 282, 285,292, 301, 304, 312, 318–19, 324, 326,328–30, 342, 350, 352–4, 356–8,361–2, 367, 381, 387, 393, 396, 398,402, 409, 418–19, 421–3, 425, 427,435, 471, 473, 475, 494, 506, 529,532, 537–8, 544–5, 561, 583, 590, 592,594–5, 602, 614, 623, 642, 644–5, 688,704, 722, 728, 757, 759, 800, 804,835, 844–5, 859, 878, 899, 956(n.3),957(n.7), 965(n.5), 970(n.1), 972(n.12),978(n.51), 979(n.4)

Wrocław (Breslau), 80, 118, 581, 621,624–7, 632–3, 677, 729, 799,974(n.26)

Wujek, Jakub (1541–1597), 110, 123Wyder, Grazyna, 27, 307˙Wydra, Wiesław, 111Wysocka, Dorota, 586, 595

Yazygia, 672Yeltsin, Boris, 884Yesilköy (San Stefano), 249¸

1128 Index

Yiddish Scientific Institute (YIVO), 314Yiddish, 41, 49–51, 58, 77–9, 81, 116, 119,

131, 139, 142, 169, 172, 188, 211, 213,301, 309–17, 319–20, 326, 331, 335–6,341, 358, 380, 383, 387, 397, 402,409–10, 493, 513, 573, 588–9, 595–7,600–1, 613, 620, 649, 662, 668–7, 708,716, 739, 756, 807, 831, 914, 925, 929

Young Czechs, 508, 509, 513, 719Young Turk Revolution, 250Yugoslavia, 2, 4, 5, 13, 20–2, 37, 50–4, 57,

90, 143–4, 225, 228–33, 235, 237–9,245–6, 251–2, 254–5, 284–6, 297–8,331–2, 334, 340–1, 355, 358–9, 362,444, 468–71, 571, 658, 663, 666, 676,679, 686, 690–1, 694, 697, 699, 700,710, 722, 781, 819, 822, 830, 850–1,863, 875–6, 884, 890, 902, 923–4, 926,937–8, 940–1

Break-up, 22, 24, 135, 144, 150, 213, 285Yugoslavian, 227, 229, 281, 297, 460

see also SerbocroatoslovenianYuhasz, Michael, 829

Zaborowski, Stanisław, 423Žácek, Rudolf, 489, 502Zach, Krista, 205, 208Zagreb (Agram, Zágráb), 16, 17, 28, 72, 90,

220, 223, 226–8, 232, 237–9, 297, 299,436, 443–4, 448, 454, 464, 467, 469,531, 657, 663, 975(n.29)

zagrozeniach i bogactwie polszczyzny, O (OnWhat Endangers Polish, and theLanguage’s Riches, 1996, Wroclaw),633

Zahradnik, Stanisław, 730, 775Zajaczek, Józef, General (1752–1826), 380Zakład, the, 383, 625

see also OssolineumZákladové dialektologie ceskoslovenské (The

Basis of Czechoslovak Dialectology,Vienna and Olmütz [Olomouc]1864), 517

Zalán futása (Magyar epic poem) (TheFlight of Zalán, 1825, Pest), 441

Zamenhof, Ludwik (Samenhof, Eliezer)(1859–1917), 311, 336–8

Zapasko, Iakym, 357Zápolyas, 431, 432Zaprudnik, Jan, 403Zaremba, Marcin, 619Zawadzki, Hubert, 215, 411, 573Zawadzki, Mariusz, 215, 411, 573Zayas, Alfred M de, 619Zbikowski, Andrzej, 392, 596, 619Zdaniewicz, Witold, 141, 595–6, 619Zdanowicz, Aleksander, 430Zdenek, David V., 103, 104, 105, 130, 205,

222, 279, 299, 493, 503, 510, 513Zeidler, Miklós, 685Zeitschrift für Völkerpsychologie und

Sprachwissenschaft (Journal ofPsychology of Nation and Linguistics,1860–1928), 46, 49

Zelazny, Walter, 86, 140Ženuch, Peter, 823Zgółkowa, Halina, 643, 901, 950, 955Zhelikhivskyi, I (1844–1885), 176Zhytomyr (Schitomir, Zhitomir,

Zytomierz), 72, 313Zielinski, Andrzej, 392Zieniukowa, Jadwiga, 636Žigo, Pavol, 532, 535Zimmermann, Volker, 768Zinkevicius, Zigmas, 181, 182, 186, 190Ziomek, Jerzy, 111Zionism, 49, 79, 309, 310, 313, 335, 336,

402–3, 596–7, 749, 927Žižek, Slavoj, 298, 299Žjadost’i Slowenskjeho Národu (The

Demands of the Slovak Nation), 548žmoniu kalba (‘language of the

people’), 188Zog I, King (r.1928–1939), 244Zohar, the, 308Zora (periodical), 449Zpod jarma (poems) (From Under the

Yoke, Prague, 1884), 553Zsatkovich, Gregory, 735–7, 772Zubatý, Josef (1855–1931), 516Zupancic, Jernej, 698, 710Zwischengruppe (group between

[Germandom and Polishdom]),611, 612

Index of Dictionaries

Albanian, 240–6etymology, 240–1first monolingual dictionary (1954),

245first dictionary (1635) – ‘Epirean’

(epiroticum), 243first printed book, a missal (1555), 81,

243grammar of Albanian in Greek (1882),

244-Greek dictionary (1904), 244Greek-based alphabet, 67as official language of Kosovo, 57–8official principles of grammar and

orthography (1956 and 1967), 245script – Bakshimi (Unity), 244-speaking polities, 58, 240translation of Koran (1992), 246

Albanian-Greek dictionary (1904), 244Armenian, 320–7

Ashxarhabar-Grabar dictionary, (1869,Venice), 326

authoritative dictionary (1944–1945),326

ethnonym, 320etymology, 321first periodical (1794), 324first printed book (1512), 324Greek-based alphabet, 67St Mesrob Mashtots, 323script, 141translation of Koran, 325translations of New Testament, 325vernacular tradition of writing

(beginning in 17th century),325

Aromaniandictionary of (1963), 216language – Vlah or Vlach, 216script, 216–17

Ashxarhabar-Grabar dictionary, (1869,Venice), 326

Ausführliches und vollständigesdeutsch-böhmischessynonymisch-phrasologisches

Wörterbuch (The Explanatory FullGerman-Czech Dictionary, 1821,Prague), 107

Belarusian, 167–74, 411Belarusian-Polish dictionary (1929,

Wilno [Vilnius]), 173first authoritative multi-volume

dictionary (1977–1984), 173‘Old Belarusian’ (starobelaruski), 171pocket Yiddish-Belarusian dictionary

(1932), 314scripts, 157, 171state language of Soviet Republic of

Byelorussia, 174texts in 18th and 19th centuries, 169

Belarusian-Muscovian (see Russian), 172dictionary (1919, Wilno [Vilnius]), 172

Belarusian-Muscovian dictionary (1919,Wilno [Vilnius]), 172

Belarusian-Polishdictionary (1929), 173

Belarusian-Polish dictionary (1929, Wilno[Vilnius]), 173

Bernoláctina (see Slovak), 135, 744Bernolák’s dictionary of, 53619th-century codification of Slovak

language, 512Biblictina Böhmisch-deutsch-lateinisches

Wörterbuch (Bohemian/Czech-German-Latin Dictionary, 1820–1821,Prague and Preßburg [Bratislava]),536, 911

Bohemian/Czech-German-LatinBiblictina Böhmisch-deutsch-lateinisches

Wörterbuch (Bohemian/Czech-German-Latin Dictionary,1820–1821, Prague and Preßburg[Bratislava]), 536, 911

dictionary (1791), 494dictionary (1820–1821), 536first monolingual dictionary of, Knjžka

slow cžeských (The Book of CzechWords, 1587, Prague), 101

1129

1130 Index of Dictionaries

Böhmisch-deutsch-lateinisches Wörterbuchmit Beyfügung der den Slowaken undMähren eigenen Ausdrücke undRedensarten (two-volume dictionary ofBiblictina, 1820–1821, Prague andPreßburg [Bratislava]), 536, 911

Bosnian (see Serbo-Croatian), 233, 235dictionary of characteristic vocabulary

(1992), 233language, 232script, 220

Britannica World Language Dictionary(1954, Chicago), 316

Bulgarian, 276–88authoritative dictionary (1977–), 284beginning of, 279etymology, 287dictionary (1896, Szeged), 286first periodical, Liuboslovie (‘Love of

Words,’ 1842–1846), 280first printed book (1566), 968(n.19)first printed books in Grazhdanka

(1840), 354first publications in New, 281five-volume dictionary (1895–1904),

284-Macedonian dictionary (1968), 252,

976(n.30)standardized (19th century), 27three written standards of, 286translation of Koran (1930), 284

Bulgarian dictionary (1896, Szeged),286

Burgenland Croatian-Croatian-Germandictionary (1991), 238

Cesko-n. emecký slovník zvlástegrammaticko-fraseologický(Czech-German Grammatical andPhraseological Dictionary, 1878–1893,Prague), 515, 564, 567, 761, 763, 848,913, 917

Cesko-slovenský a slovensko-ceský slovník(Czech-Slovak and Slovak-CzechDictionary, 2004, Bratislava), 780,795, 847, 850, 898

Ceský etymologický slovník (CzechEtymological Dictionary, 2001,Voznice), 796

Church Slavonic-Greek-Latin dictionary(1704, Moscow), 154

Church Slavonic-Ruthenian dictionaries(1596, Wilno [Vilnius] and 1627,Kijów [Kyiv]), 154

Complete Dictionary of Ancient and ModernHebrew, The (1959), 309–10

Cornucopiæ (monolingual dictionary ofLatin, 1502, Reggio), 95

Croatianauthoritative dictionary of (1880–1975,

Zagreb), 226, 227dictionaries, 16th-century tradition of

compiling, 222encyclopedia, Hrvatska

enciklopedija/Encyclopaedia Croatica(1941–1945, Zagreb), 90

first authoritative grammar (1899,Agram [Zagreb]), 226

first printed book (1483, in Glagolitic),236

first printed dictionary (1595), 236Latin alphabet for writing, 50oldest surviving manuscripts, 219script, 237two-volume dictionary (1901), 227

Croatian Kajkavian, dictionary, firstvolume (Zagreb, 1984), 237

CzechCeský etymologický slovník (Czech

Etymological Dictionary, 2001,Voznice), 796

Etymologický slovník jazyka ceského (TheEtymological Dictionary of theCzech Language, 1952, Prague), 785

Etymologický slovník jazyka ceského (TheEtymological Dictionary of theCzech Language, 1968, Prague),881, 945

Etymologický slovník jazyka ceského aslovenského (The EtymologicalDictionary of the Czech and SlovakLanguages, 1957, Prague), 627, 763,786, 878, 945

first authoritative dictionary of Czechlanguage, Slownjk cesko-nemecký(The Czech-German Dictionary,1835–1839, Prague), 107, 117, 348,493, 534, 536, 762–3, 796, 906, 911,913, 917, 933

first grammar, Gramatyka Cžeská (CzechGrammar, 1533, Námešt’), 100

first monolingual dictionary ofBohemian, Knjžka slow cžeských

Index of Dictionaries 1131

(The Book of Czech Words, 1587,Prague), 101

first printed dictionary (1511), 100Grammaticae Bohemicae (Czech

Grammar, Prague, 1603), 100Knjžka slow cžeských (The Book of the

Czech Words, 1587, Prague), 101-language encyclopedia Slovník naucnýˇ

(1859–1874, Prague), 461lexicography Lexicon symphonum (The

Symphonia of Words, 1537 and1544, Basle), 101

Malý staroceský slovníkˇ (The SmallDictionary of Old Czech, 1979,Prague), 786

Národní encyklopedie ˇeskᡠ(The NationalCzech Encyclopedia), 407

Nomenclator quadrilinguis (TheFour-Language[Czech-Latin-Greek-German]Dictionary, 1598, Prague), 101

Príruˇˇ cní slovník jazyka ˇˇ eskéhoˇ (TheReference Dictionary of the CzechLanguage, 1935–1957, Prague), 515,605–6, 762–3, 771, 784–5, 796, 879,913, 933, 943

publication of full Czech translation ofBible (1579–1594, Kralice), 101

Slovník spisovného jazyka ˇeskéhoˇ (TheDictionary of the Written CzechLanguage, 1957–1971, Prague), 625,785, 796, 943

Slovník staroceskýˇ (The Dictionary of OldCzech, 1903–1916, Prague), 517,627, 763, 786, 917, 933, 947

Slownjk ˇesko-nˇ emeckýˇ (TheCzech-German Dictionary,1835–1839, Prague), 107, 117, 348,493, 534, 536, 762–3, 796, 906, 911,913, 917, 933

Staroceský slovníkˇ (The Dictionary of OldCzech, 1968–, Prague), 517, 786

Czech–German dictionary of the Czechlanguage (1835–1839, Prague, printedin Antiqua), 348

Czech-Germanauthoritative five-volume dictionary of

(1835–1839, Prague), 107, 117, 348,493, 534, 536, 762–3, 796, 906, 911,913, 917, 933

Cesko-nemecký slovník zvlásteˇgrammaticko-fraseologický

(Czech-German Grammatical andPhraseological Dictionary,1878–1893, Prague), 515, 564, 567,761, 763, 848, 913, 917

multi-volume authoritativephraseological dictionary,Cesko-nemecký slovník zvlásteˇgrammaticko-fraseologický(1878–1893, Prague), 515, 564, 567,761, 763, 848, 913, 917

Slownjk ˇesko-nˇ emeckýˇ (Czech-GermanDictionary, 1835–1839, Prague),107, 117, 493, 534, 536, 762–3, 796,906, 911, 913, 917, 933

Czech-German-Latin dictionary (1791),494

Czech-Latin-German Nomenclator(Dictionary, 1746–1768, Prague), 106

Czech-Slovakauthoritative dictionary (2005), 795Cesko-slovenský a slovensko-ceský slovníkˇ

(Czech-Slovak and Slovak-CzechDictionary, 2004, Bratislava), 780,795, 847, 850, 898

dictionary (Slovník slovensko-ceský aˇcesko-slovenský,ˇ 1896, Rózsahegy[Ružomberok]), 564

grammar (Strucná mluvniceˇcesko-slovenská,ˇ 1919, Prague), 565

Czechoslovak (see Czech, Slovak)Historická mluvnice ceskoslovenskáˇ

(Historical Grammar ofCzechoslovak, Prague, 1935), 520

short etymological dictionary, Strucnýˇslovník etymologický jazykaceskoslovenskéhoˇ (1933, Prague),763

Strucný slovník etymologický jazykaˇceskoslovenskéhoˇ (The ShortEtymological Dictionary of theCzechoslovak Language, 1933,Prague), 605–6, 785, 945

Deutschböhmisches Wörterbuch (TheGerman-Bohemian Dictionary, 1802and 1821, Prague), 494

Deutsches Wörterbuch (The GermanDictionary, 1854–1960, Lepizig), 397

Dictionarium Latinohungaricum (TheLatin-Magyar Dictionary, 1604,Nuremberg), 122

1132 Index of Dictionaries

Dictionarul limbii române literarecontemporane (The Dictionary of theContemporary Literary RomanianLanguage, 1955–1957, Bucharest), 625

dictionary of Ottoman, 1874, 265Dictionniare de l’Académie française (The

Dictionary of the French Academy,1694, Paris), 83

Dictionnaire de l’Académie française (TheDictionary of the French Academy, 4th

ed., 1762, Paris), 161Dictionnaire français-latin (The

French-Latin Dictionary, 1541, Paris),110

English-Slovak (1905), 566Esperanto, 335–40

encyclopedia of (La Enciklopedio de((Esperanto, 1933–1934, Budapest),339

first book, 336Universala Vortaro (The Universal

Dictionary [of Esperanto], 1891,Warsaw), 337

Estonian, 192–201etymology, 197first monolingual authoritative

dictionary of (1925–1937), 200grammar, multi-volume descriptive

(1875), 199Estonian-German

dictionary (1663–1749), 198dictionary (1869), 199

Etymological Dictionary, 2001, 275, 299,308, 320, 967–8(n.13, 15, 16),974(n.24), 976(n.976), 977(n.40)

Etymologický slovník jazyka ceského (TheEtymological Dictionary of the CzechLanguage, 1952, Prague), 785

Etymologický slovník jazyka ceského (TheEtymological Dictionary of the CzechLanguage, 1968, Prague), 881, 945

Etymologický slovník jazyka ceského aslovenského (The EtymologicalDictionary of the Czech and SlovakLanguages, 1957, Prague), 627, 763,786, 878, 945

Etymologiczny słownik jezyka polskiego (TheEtymological Dictionary of PolishLanguage, 1927, Cracow), 605, 643,763, 932, 945

Etymologiczny słownik jezyka polskiego (TheEtymological Dictionary of PolishLanguage, 1952–1982, Cracow),626–7, 945

Etymologiczny słownik jezyka polskiego (TheEtymological Dictionary of PolishLanguage, 2000, Warsaw), 643, 950

FrenchDictionniare de l’Académie française (The

Dictionary of the French Academy,1694, Paris), 83

Dictionnaire de l’Académie française (TheDictionary of the French Academy,4th ed., 1762, Paris), 161

Dictionnaire français-latin (The French-Latin Dictionary, 1541, Paris), 110

first printed book (1476), 82Polnoi frantsuzskoi i rossiiskoi leksikon (The

Complete Lexicon of French andRussian, 1786, St Petersburg), 161

Friuliandictionary (1871), 300ethnonym, 300first grammar (1846), 300

Gagauz-Moldavian (see Moldovan)dictionary (1973, Moscow), 270

Gagauz-Moldavian dictionary (1973,Moscow), 273

Gagauz-Turkish, 270Gagauz-Turkish dictionary (1991, Ankara),

270German, 73–86

Deutsches Wörterbuch (The GermanDictionary, 1854–1960, Lepizig), 397

first newspaper (1764), 129first normative dictionary

(1691,Nuremberg), 83Nomenclator quadrilinguis (The

Four-Language[Czech-Latin-Greek-German]Dictionary, 1598, Prague), 101

pronunciation norm, DeutscheBühnenaussprache (German StagePronunciation, 1898, Berlin), 85

Teutschen Sprache Stammbaum, oderTeutscher Sprachsatz, Der (TheGenealogical Tree of the GermanLanguage, or the GermanVocabulary, 1691, Nuremberg), 83

Index of Dictionaries 1133

Versuch eines vollständigengrammatisch-kritischen Wörterbuchsder Hochdeutschen Mundart (AnAttempt at the FullGrammatical-Critical Dictionary ofthe High German Dialect,1774–1786, Leipzig), 83–4, 378, 397

German-Czech dictionary (1788), 494German-Bohemian (see Czech)

Deutschböhmisches Wörterbuch(German-Czech Dictionary, 1802and 1821, Prague), 494

Úplný ˇemeckoˇ ceský slovníkˇ (CompleteGerman-Bohemian Dictionary,1843–1847, Prague), 494

German-Burgenland Croatian-Croatiandictionary (1982), 238

German-Croatian dictionary (1901), 227German-Czech

Ausführliches und vollständigesdeutsch-böhmischessynonymisch-phrasologischesWörterbuch (The Explanatory FullGerman-Czech Dictionary, 1821,Prague), 107

comprehensive two-volumeGerman-Czech dictionary(Deutschböhmisches Wörterbuch(( ,1802 and 1821, Prague), 107

Nationallexicon (‘National Dictionary,’1788, Prague and Vienna), 106

Nemecko-NˇN ceský slovník vˇˇ deckéhoˇnázvosloví progymnasia a reálné školy(German-Czech Dictionary ofScientific Terminology forSecondary Schools, 1853, Prague),494, 513–14

German-Czech dictionary (Ausführliches((und vollständiges deutsch-böhmischessynonymisch-phrasologischesWörterbuch, 1792, Prague), 107

German-Czech Nationallexicon (‘NationalDictionary,’ 1788, Prague andVienna), 106

German-Lithuanianbilingual dictionaries (1870–1874 and

1883), 184German-Lower Sorbian dictionary

(1953), 306German-Polish

dictionary of legal and administrativevocabulary, Niemiecko-polski słownik

wyrazów prawniczych i administra-cyjnych (1862, Cracow), 405

Niemiecko-polski słownik wyrazówprawniczych i administracyjnych (TheGerman-Polish Dictionary of Legaland Administrative Vocabulary,1862, Cracow), 405

Słownik dokładny jezyka polskiego ieeniemieckiego / Vollständigespolnisch-deutsches Wörterbuch (TheExact Dictionary of the Polish andGerman Languages, 1806, Breslau[Wrocław]), 379

technical dictionary (TechnischesWörterbuch / Słownik techniczny,1913), 405, 607

German-Slovaktwo-volume dictionary (1922–1923,

Bratislava), 566German-Upper Sorbian

two-volume dictionary (1989–1991), 306German-Upper Sorbian dictionary

(1989–1991), 306German-Windish dictionary (1789), 293German-Windish (see Slovenian)

dictionary (1789), 293Glossarium mediae et infimae Latinitatis

(authoritative monolingual dictionaryof Medieval and Neo-Latin, 1678,Paris), 96

Grabar-Ashxarhabar (see Armenian)dictionary (1843), 326

Grabar-Ashxarhabar dictionary, (1843,Venice), 326

Grabar (see Armenian)Bible (1666, Amsterdam), 324two extensive dictionaries (1836–1837,

Vienna and 1844–1846,Constantinople), 326

Greek, Demoticfirst novel (1888), 261

Gypsy-Russian dictionary, 1931, 331Gypsy (see Romani)-Russian

dictionary (1938), 331

Hebrew (including Ivrit, or New Hebrew),307–11

Complete Dictionary of Ancient andModern Hebrew, The (1959), 309–10

first novel (1853), 309

1134 Index of Dictionaries

Hebrew – continuedfirst weekly (1856), 309New Testament (1599), 308Old Testament (1488), 308translation of Koran (1857, Leipzig),

309Helyesírásí tanácsadó szótár (The Dictionary

of Advice How to Write Correctly,1961, Budapest), 704

Historický slovník slovenského jazyka (TheHistorical Dictionary of the SlovakLanguage, 1991–, Bratislava), 763,899, 948

Ilustrovaná encyklopedié ved technickych(Illustrated Scientific Dictionary ofTechnology, 1927–1949, Pargue),514–15

Italian-Latin-Illyrian (see Croatian)dictionaries (1728, Venice and 1805,

Ragusa), 222

Judeo- (see Ladino, Spanyol)-Spanish-French

dictionary (1977, Madrid), 320Judeo- (see Ladino, Spanyol)-Spanish-

Turkishdictionary (1997, Istanbul), 320

Jewish Spanish (see Ladino,Spanyol)-French

dictionary, (1853, Jerusalem), 319extensive dictionary (1898, Jerusalem),

319

Knjžka slow cžeských (The Book of theCzech Words, 1587, Prague), 101

Krátky slovník slovenského jazyka (The ShortDictionary of the Slovak Language,1987, Bratislava), 881, 899

Ladino-Spanish-French dictionary (1977,Madrid), 320

Latin-German-Italian-Slavic (Slovenian)(1592, Graz), 292

Latin-Grabar (see Armenian)dictionary (1695, Rome), 324

Latin-Grabar dictionary (1695, Rome),324

Latin-Italian-German-Dalmatian (seeCroatian)-Hungarian (see Magyar)

dictionary (1595, Venice), 220

Latin-Magyar, 442Dictionarium Latinohungaricum (The

Latin-Magyar Dictionary, 1604,Nuremberg), 122

first extensive dictionaries (1590,Debrecen and 1604, Nuremberg),122

Latin-Polishdictionary (Lexicon Latinopolonicum,(

1564, Königsberg [Kaliningrad]),111, 478

Latvian, 192–201-German dictionary (1638), 194, 195first grammar (1644), 194first printed book (1525), 194

Latvian-Germandictionary (1638), 194, 195four-volume dictionary (1923–1932),

195Latvian-German dictionary (1923–1932),

194, 195Lexicon Latinopolonicum (The Latin-Polish

Dictionary, 1564, Königsberg[Kaliningrad] in Ducal Prussia), 111,478

Lexikon Tetraglosson (dictionary of fourlanguages, Greek, Albanian, Valachian[Aromanian], and Slavic – 1794,Moschopolis [Voskopojë]), 248

Linguarum totius orbis vocabulariacomparativa (The ComparativeDictionary of the Languages of theWorld, 1786–1789, St Petersburg), 46

Lithuanian, 180–92etymology, 181–2first authoritative dictionary

(1941–2002), 189first full-fledged dictionary (1631), 182

Lithuanian-Polish-Russian dictionary(1897–1922), 185

Lithuanian-Samogitian (see Lithuanian),184

Little Russian (see Ukrainian)first novel (1857), 170

Lower Sorbian-Germanextensive dictionary (1999), 306dictionary (1911–1928, St Petersburg

and Prague), 304

Macedonian, 246–55grammar (1865), 248standardized in mid-20th century, 27

Index of Dictionaries 1135

three-volume dictionary withexplanations in Serbo-Croatian(1961–1966), 252

translation of Bible (1967), 252Magyar, 130, 460, 461, 705, 917, 932, 943,

945, 947Dictionary of Correct Writing in Magyar

(Magyar helyesírásí kéziszótár, 1999,rBudapest), 704

Dictionary of the Magyar Language(magyar nyelv szótára, A, 1862–1874,Budapest), 130, 460, 515, 680, 681,682, 704

Dictionary of the Magyar LanguageReform (Magyar nyelvújítás szótára,A, 1902–1908, Budapest),462, 764

Etymological Dictionary of the MagyarLanguage (Magyar etymológiai szótár,r1914–1944, Budapest), 461, 517,527, 681

Explanatory Dictionary of the MagyarLanguage (Magyar nyelv értelmez˝szótára, A, 1959–1962, Budapest),625, 703

Historical Dictionary of the MagyarLanguage (Magyar nyelv történetiszótar, 1890–1893, Budapest), 461,r517, 627, 763, 947

Historical-Etymological Dictionary ofthe Magyar Language (Magyar nyelvtörténeti-etimologiai szótára, A,1967–1976, Budapest), 627, 705

Short Explanatory Dictionary of Magyar(Magyar értelmez˝ kéziszótár˝ , 1972,rBudapest), 704

Magyar értelmez˝ kéziszótár˝ (The ShortExplanatory Dictionary of Magyar,1972, Budapest), 704

Magyar etymológiai szótár (EtymologicalDictionary of the Magyar Language,1914–1944, Budapest), 461, 517, 527,681

Magyar helyesírásí kéziszótár (TheDictionary of Correct Writing inMagyar, 1999, Budapest), 704

Magyar nyelv értelmez˝ szótára, A˝ (TheExplanatory Dictionary of the MagyarLanguage, 1959–1962, Budapest), 625,703

magyar nyelv szótára, A (The Dictionary ofthe Magyar Language, 1862–1874,

Budapest), 130, 460, 515, 680, 681,682, 704

Magyar nyelv történeti-etimologiai szótára, A(The Historical-EtymologicalDictionary of the Magyar Language,1967–1976, Budapest), 627, 705

Magyar nyelvújítás szótára, A (Dictionary ofthe Magyar Language Reform,1902–1908, Budapest), 462, 764

Magyar nyelv történeti szótar (HistoricalDictionary of the Magyar Language,1890–1893, Budapest), 461, 517, 627,763, 947

Magyar-Romanitwo bilingual dictionaries, 952

Magyar tájszótár (The Dictionary of theMagyar Dialects, 1893–1901,Budapest), 461

Mały słownik jezyka polskiego (The SmalleeDictionary of the Polish Language,1968, Warsaw), 625, 640

Malý staroceský slovníkˇ (The SmallDictionary of Old Czech, 1979,Prague), 786

Megleno-Romanianthree-volume dictionary (1935), 216

Moldavian (see Moldovan), 214Moldovan-Romanian

first ever dictionary (2003), 214,976(n.30)

Muscovian (see Russian)-Ukrainianbilingual dictionary (Slovnyk

moskovsko-ukrains’kyi, 1918, Kyiv),177

Slovnyk moskovsko-ukrains’kyi (TheMuscovian-Ukrainian dictionary,1918, Kyiv), 177

Nemecko-NˇN ceský slovník vˇˇ deckého názvoslovíˇpro gymnasia a reálné školy(German-Czech Dictionary ofScientific Terminology for SecondarySchools, 1853, Prague), 494, 513–14

New English Dictionary on HistoricalPrinciples, The (1884–1928, Oxford),84

Niemiecko-polski słownik wyrazówprawniczych i administracyjnych (TheGerman-Polish Dictionary of Legaland Administrative Vocabulary, 1862,Cracow), 405

1136 Index of Dictionaries

Nomenclator quadrilinguis (TheFour-Language [Czech-Latin-Greek-German] Dictionary, 1598,Prague), 101

Ottoman (see Old Turkish)-Turkish(1952), 267

dictionary of Ottoman, 1874, 265Ottoman-Turkish dictionary, 1952, 267Oxford English Dictionary Online 2004, 264

Polish, 108–20, 368–406Etymologiczny słownik jezyka polskiego

(The Etymological Dictionary ofPolish Language, 1927, Cracow),605, 643, 763, 932, 945

Etymologiczny słownik jezyka polskiego(The Etymological Dictionary ofPolish Language, 1952–1982,Cracow), 626–7, 945

Etymologiczny słownik jezyka polskiego(The Etymological Dictionary ofPolish Language, 2000, Warsaw),643, 950

first authoritative dictionary(1807–1814, Warsaw), 116–17, 378,397, 424, 426, 534, 604, 625, 908,911, 913, 917

first etymological dictionary published(1927, Cracow), 932

first extensive dictionary, two-volumeLexicon Latinopolonicum (TheLatin-Polish Dictionary, 1564,Königsberg [Kaliningrad]), 111

first grammar (1568, Cracow), 109first printed book (1513), 110Mały słownik jezyka polskiego (The Small

Dictionary of the Polish Language,1968, Warsaw), 625, 640

Praktyczny słownik współczesnejpolszczyzny (The Practical Dictionaryof the Polish Language, 1994–2005,Poznan), 643, 711, 901, 950, 955

purely monolingual dictionary(1900–1927, Warsaw), 397, 515

Słownik etymologiczny jezyka polskiego(The Etymological Dictionary of thePolish Language, 2005, Cracow),605, 626–7, 643, 763, 918

Słownik gwar polskich (The Dictionary ofthe Polish Dialects, 1900–1911,

Cracow), 405, 461, 505, 517, 561,606, 626, 650, 670, 917, 961

Słownik jezyka polskiego (Dictionary ofthe Polish Language, 1807–1814,Warsaw), 116, 378, 397, 424, 426,534, 604, 625, 908, 911, 913, 917

Słownik Jezyka Polskiego (The Dictionaryof the Polish Language, 1861, Vilna[Vilnius] 1861), 426–7, 626

Słownik jezyka polskiego (Dictionary ofthe Polish Language, 1900–1927,Warsaw), 397, 415, 427–8, 461,604–6, 913, 932

Słownik jezyka polskiego (TheDictionary of the PolishLanguage, 1938–1939, Warsaw),604–5, 932–3

Słownik jezyka polskiego (The Dictionaryof the Polish Language, 1958–1969,Warsaw), 625, 628, 640, 643, 943

Słownik jezyka polskiego (The Dictionaryof the Polish Language, 1978–1981,Warsaw), 626, 640

Słownik Jezyka Polskiego podług Lindego(The Dictionary of the PolishLanguage, Compiled in Accordancewith Linde’s [Dictionary], 1866,Berlin), 426

Słownik jezyka polskiego XVI wieku (TheDictionary of the 16th-CenturyPolish Language, 1966–, Wrocław),627

Słownik poprawnej polszczyzny (TheDictionary of Correct Polish, 1973,Warsaw), 625–6, 640, 641

Słownik staropolski (The Dictionary ofOld Polish, 1953–2002, Warsaw),517, 627, 763, 947

Słownik wilenski (The VilniusDictionary [actually titledSłownik Jezyka Polskiego, TheDictionary of the Polish Language],1861, Vilna [Vilnius]), 116, 378,397, 426–7, 534, 604, 605, 606,625, 626

standard reference dictionary, Słownikajezyka polskiego (The Dictionary ofPolish Language, 1978–1981,Warsaw), 626

Thesaurus Polonolatinograecus(Polish-Latin-Greek Dictionary,1621–1632, Cracow), 110

Index of Dictionaries 1137

Uniwersalny słownik jezyka polskiegoee (TheUniversal Dictionary of the PolishLanguage, 2003, Warsaw), 641

Polish-Church Slavonic dictionary(1722), 156

Polish-French-German dictionary(1744–1782, Leipzig), 378

Polish-Latin-Latvian dictionary (1673),194

Polsko-rossiiskii slovar / Słownikpolsko-rossyyski (The Polish-RussianDictionary, 1828–1830, Vilna[Vilnius]), 382

Praktyczny słownik współczesnej polszczyzny(The Practical Dictionary of the PolishLanguage, 1994–2005, Poznan), 643,´711, 901, 950, 955

Prekmurjan (see Slovenian)first-ever dictionary (1922), 299first periodical (20th century), 299first printed book, catechism (1715,

Halle), 299Príruˇˇ cní slovník jazyka ˇˇ eskéhoˇ (The

Reference Dictionary of the CzechLanguage, 1935–1957, Prague), 515,605–6, 762–3, 771, 784–5, 796, 879,913, 933, 943

Romani, 327–35-Czech dictionary (1991, Prague), 872etymology, 216first dictionary and grammar

(1844–1845, Halle), 330first periodical published in (1920s,

Edirne), 330first published text written in Romani

(1755), 330-Punjabi-English dictionary (1981,

Patiala, Punjab), 328Romani-German-English (1994,

Wiesbaden), 334Romani-Punjabi-English dictionary

(1981, Patiala, Punjab), 328Romanian, 201–17

authoritative dictionary (1955–1957,Bucharest), 625

Dictionarul limbii române literare¸contemporane (The Dictionary of theContemporary Literary RomanianLanguage, 1955–1957, Bucharest),625

etymology, 201

first authoritative, two-volumedictionary (1871–1876), 211

first printed book (1544), 97standardization of, 210

Russian, 158–64authoritative Polsko-rossiiskii slovar /

Słownik polsko-rossyyski (ThePolish-Russian Dictionary,1828–1830, Vilna [Vilnius]), 382

first book, 82first translation of the Bible (1856), 163Russkaia grammatika (Russian Grammar,

1831, St Petersburg), 160, 162Russkoe pravopisane (Russian Grammar,

1885, St Petersburg), 163Slovar Akademii Rossiiskoi (The

Dictionary of the Russian Academy,1789–1794, St Petersburg), 161

Slovar rossiisko-polskii, sochinennyi poslovariam Akademii Rossiiskoi /Słownik rossyysko -polski ułozonypodług słowników Akademii rossyyskiej(The Russian-Polish Dictionary,Compiled in Accordance with theRussian Academy’s Dictionaries [ofRussian], 1825–1828, Warsaw), 382

Slovar sovremennogo russkogo literaturnogoiazyka (The Dictionary of theContemporary Literary RussianLanguage, 1950–1965, Moscow),164

Tolkovyi slovar zhivogo velikorusskogoiazyka (The Explanatory Dictionaryof the Contemporary Great RussianLanguage, 1863–1866, Moscow),162

Russian-Jewish (see Yiddish) dictionary(1984), 315

Russian-Jewish (Yiddish) dictionary, 315Russian-Magyar dictionary (1881), 745Russian-‘New Jewish’ (see Yiddish)

dictionary in 1909, 313Russian-Polish, 382, 385Russian-Ukrainian dictionary

(1924–1933, Kyiv), 178Ruthenian (official language of the Grand

Duchy of Lithuania)Church Slavonic-Ruthenian dictionary

(1596, Wilno [Vilnius]), 154Church Slavonic-Ruthenian dictionary

(1627, Kijów [Kyiv]), 154

1138 Index of Dictionaries

Ruthenian (Rusyn)-German dictionary(1886), 176

Šariš (see Slovak, Eastern)-Slovakdictionary, compiled (2000–2006,

Prešov), 822Serbian, 224, 227, 235

first authoritative grammar (1899), 226first printed book (1761), 82first printshop (1831), 223first newspaper (1834), 223first primer (Montenegro, 1836), 353

Serbo-Croatian, 217–40Sieben-Sprachen-Wörterbuch (Dictionary of

Seven Languages[German-Polish-Russian-WhiteRuthenian-Lithuanian-Latvian-Yiddish], 1918, Leipzig), 313

Silesian dialect (of German)dictionary of (Schlesisches Wörterbuch,

1962–1965), 406Silva quadrilinguis (The Forest of Four

Languages, 1598, Prague), 101Slavic (see Croatian), 222

etymology, 197Grammatica slavica (The Slavic

Grammar, 1790), 134, 533Vergleichende slavische Grammatik

(Comparative Slavic Grammar,1924), 520

SlovakEtymologický slovník jazyka ceského a

slovenského (The EtymologicalDictionary of the Czech and SlovakLanguages, 1957, Prague), 627, 763,786, 878, 945

first-ever authoritative dictionary ofSlovak (Slovník spisovného jazykaslovenského, The Dictionary of theWritten Slovak Language,1946–1949, Turciansky SvätýMartin), 625, 763–64, 777

Historický slovník slovenského jazyka (TheHistorical Dictionary of the SlovakLanguage, 1991–, Bratislava), 763,899, 948

Krátky slovník slovenského jazyka (TheShort Dictionary of the SlovakLanguage, 1987, Bratislava),881, 899

Slovenský naucný slovník. Prirucnáencyklopedia vedomostí v troch dieloch

(The Slovak Scientific Dictionary,1932, Bratislava and Prague), 514,849

Slovenský slovník z literatúry aj náreci (TheSlovak Dictionary With WordsTaken From Literary Works andDialects, 1924, Banská Bystrica),564

Slovník slovenského jazyka (TheDictionary of Slovak Language,1959–1968, Bratislava), 138, 534,625, 778, 879–81, 899–900, 913,943

Slovník slovenský a mad’arský dl’a JosefaLoosa (The Dictionary of the Slovakand Magyar Languages Compiled inAccordance with the Principles ofJozef Loos’s Dictionary, 1906,Budapest), 564, 846–7

Slowá´ Slowenski´ Cesko-Lat’insko-Nemecko- Uherskí seu LexiconSlavicum Bohemico-Latino-Germanico-Ungaricum (The SlovakDictionary:Czech-Latin-German-Magyar,1825–1827, Buda), 134, 534, 911

Slovník slovensko-ceský a cesko-slovenský(The Slovak-Czech andCzech-Slovak Dictionary, 1896,Rózsahegy [Ružomberok]), 564

Slovník spisovného jazyka slovenského(The Dictionary of the WrittenSlovak Language, 1946–1949,Turciansky Svätý Martin), 777,877–9, 878, 879, 943

Slovník súcasného slovenského jazyka (TheDictionary of the ContemporarySlovak Language, 2006–, Bratislava),643, 797, 900, 901, 943, 950, 955

Slovak-Czech, 861–83dictionaries, 564, 565, 780, 795, 847,

850, 882, 898, 944extensive one-volume Slovak-Czech

dictionary (Slovensko-ceský slovník,1967, Prague), 780, 944

monolingual dictionaries published ininterwar Czechoslovakia, 563

Reference Czech-Slovak andSlovak-Czech Dictionary (1919,Prague), 847

Slovník slovensko-ceský a cesko-slovenský(The Slovak-Czech and

Index of Dictionaries 1139

Czech-Slovak Dictionary, 1896,Rózsahegy [Ružomberok]), 564, 565,780, 847, 882, 898, 944

Slovak-MagyarLekársky slovník (Medical Dictionary,

1920, Brno), 566Slovak/Slavic Dictionary:

Czech/Bohemian-Latin-German-Hungarian (1825–1827,Buda), 534

Slovar Akademii Rossiiskoi (Dictionary ofthe Russian Academy [of Sciences],1789–1794, St Petersburg), 161

Slovenian-German dictionary(1894–1895), 296

Slovenian (Slavic), 293, 298dictionary, based on Kajkavian Croatian

(1670, Graz), 293Slovenský naucný slovník. Priruˇˇ náˇ

encyklopedia vedomostí v troch dieloch(The Slovak Scientific Dictionary,1932, Bratislava and Prague), 514, 849

Slovenský slovník z literatúry aj náreˇiˇ (TheSlovak Dictionary With Words TakenFrom Literary Works and Dialects,1924, Banská Bystrica), 564

Slovník slovenského jazyka (The Dictionaryof Slovak Language, 1959–1968,Bratislava), 138, 534, 625, 778,879–81, 899–900, 913, 943

Slovník slovenský a mad’arský dl’a JosefaLoosa (The Dictionary of the Slovakand Magyar Languages Compiled inAccordance with the Principles ofJozef Loos’s Dictionary, 1906,Budapest), 564, 846–7

Slovník spisovného jazyka ˇeskéhoˇ (TheDictionary of the Written CzechLanguage, 1957–1971, Prague), 625,785, 796, 943

Slovník spisovného jazyka slovenského (TheDictionary of the Written SlovakLanguage, 1946–1949, TurcianskyˇSvätý Martin), 777, 877–9, 878, 879,943

Slovník staroceskýˇ (The Dictionary of OldCzech, 1903–1916, Prague), 517, 627,763, 786, 917, 933, 947

Slovník súcasného slovenského jazykaˇ (TheDictionary of the ContemporarySlovak Language, 2006–, Bratislava),643, 797, 900–1, 943, 950, 955

Slovnyk moskovsko-ukrains’kyi (TheMuscovian-Ukrainian dictionary,1918, Kyiv), 177

Slowá´ Slowenski´ Cesko-Lat’insko-Nemecko-Uherskí, seu Lexicon SlavicumBohemico-Latino-Germanico-Ungaricum(The Slovak/Slavic Dictionary:Czech/Bohemian-Latin-German-Hungarian, 1825–1827,Buda), 134, 534, 911

Słownik dokładny jezyka polskiego ieeniemieckiego / Vollständigespolnisch-deutsches Wörterbuch (TheExact Dictionary of the Polish andGerman Languages, 1806, Breslau[Wrocław]), 379

Słownik etymologiczny jezyka polskiegoee (TheEtymological Dictionary of the PolishLanguage, 2005, Cracow), 605, 626–7,643, 763, 918

Słownik gwar polskich (The Dictionary ofthe Polish Dialects, 1900–1911,Cracow), 405, 461, 505, 517, 561, 606,626, 650, 670, 917, 961

Słownik Jezyka Polskiegoee (The Dictionary ofthe Polish Language, 1861, Vilna[Vilnius] 1861), 426–7, 626

Słownik jezyka polskiegoee (Dictionary of thePolish Language, 1900–1927,Warsaw), 397, 415, 427–8, 461, 604–6,913, 932

Słownik jezyka polskiegoee (The Dictionary ofthe Polish Language, 1938–1939,Warsaw), 604–5, 932–3

Słownik jezyka polskiegoee (The Dictionary ofthe Polish Language, 1958–1969,Warsaw), 625, 628, 640, 643, 943

Słownik jezyka polskiegoee (The Dictionary ofthe Polish Language, 1978–1981,Warsaw), 626, 640

Słownik Jezyka Polskiego podług Lindegoee (TheDictionary of the Polish Language,Compiled in Accordance with Linde’s[Dictionary], 1866, Berlin), 426

Słownik jezyka polskiego XVI wiekuee (TheDictionary of the 16th-Century PolishLanguage, 1966–, Wrocław), 627

Słownik ortoepiczny (The Dictionary ofCorrect Writing, 1937, Warsaw), 623,682

1140 Index of Dictionaries

Słownik poprawnej polszczyzny (TheDictionary of Correct Polish, 1973,Warsaw), 625–6, 640, 641

Słownik staropolski (The Dictionary of OldPolish, 1953–2002, Warsaw), 517,627, 763, 947

Słownik wilenski (The Vilnius Dictionary[actually titled Słownik JezykaPolskiego, The Dictionary of the PolishLanguage], 1861, Vilna [Vilnius]), 116,378, 397, 426–7, 534, 604, 605, 606,625, 626

Slownjk cesko-nemecký (The Czech-GermanDictionary, 1835–1839, Prague), 107,117, 348, 493, 534, 536, 762–3, 796,906, 911, 913, 917, 933

Sorbian-German dictionary (1911–1928,St Petersburg and Prague),304, 306

Staroceský slovník (The Dictionary of OldCzech, 1968–, Prague), 517, 786

Strucný slovník etymologický jazykaceskoslovenského (The ShortEtymological Dictionary of theCzechoslovak Language, 1933,Prague), 605–6, 785, 945

Technisches Wörterbuch/Słownik techniczny(The German-Polish TechnicalDictionary, 1913), 405, 607

Teutschen Sprache Stammbaum, OderTeutscher Sprachsatz, Der (TheGenealogical Tree of the GermanLanguage, or the German Vocabulary,1691, Nuremberg), 83

Thesaurus Polonolatinograecus(Polish-Latin-Greek Dictionary,1621–1632, Cracow), 110

Tolkovyi slovar zhivogo velikorusskogo iazyka(Explanatory Dictionary of theContemporary Great RussianLanguage, 1863–1866, Moscow), 162

Ukrainian, 166, 178Universala Vortaro (Universal Dictionary

[of Esperanto], 1891, Warsaw), 337Uniwersalny słownik jezyka polskiego (The

Universal Dictionary of the PolishLanguage, 2003, Warsaw), 641

Úplný nemeckoceský slovník (CompleteGerman-Bohemian Dictionary,1843–1847, Prague), 494

Upper Sorbian-German dictionaries,304–6

Upper Sorbian-Russian dictionary(1954–1974), 306

Versuch eines vollständigengrammatisch-kritischen Wörterbuchs derHochdeutschen Mundart (An Attempt atthe Full Grammatical-CriticalDictionary of the High GermanDialect, 1774–1786, Leipzig), 83–4,378, 397

Vocabolario degli Accademici della Crusca(The Dictionary of Accademia dellaCrusca, 1612, Venice), 82

Walachian(see Romanian)-Latin-Magyar-German

first authoritative (1825, Buda), 207Webster’s Third New International Dictionary

(1966, Chicago), 316White Russian (see Belarusian), 409

significant dictionaries of dialect(nareche) (1845 and 1870), 171

Yiddish, 311–16etymology, 311first printed book (1534, Cracow), 312first newspaper, 312

Yiddish-Belarusian dictionary (1932), 314Yiddish-English dictionary (1968), 315Yiddish-Russian dictionaries (1876 and

1940), 313, 314