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Design Handbook Copper in Architecture Awards Featured Projects DIY: Do It Proper With Copper Video Series
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FAQs Finishes Education Manufacturers & Distributors Contractors Questions? Contact Us

o Automotive Electric Vehicles Copper-Nickel Brake Tube Radiators and Heat Exchangers

o Electrical Building Wire Energy Efficiency Power Quality Busbar Copper Motor Rotor Industry Links CDA Building Wire Task Group

o Tube, Pipe & Fittings Overview Key Copper Benefits TechCorner Project Managers DIY: Do It Proper With Copper Video Series Applications Resources & Tools Installing Copper Piping Systems
http://www.copper.org/applications/architecture/faqs.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/applications/architecture/faqs.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/applications/architecture/finishes.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/applications/architecture/finishes.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/applications/architecture/educational_programs.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/applications/architecture/educational_programs.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/applications/architecture/manufacturers.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/applications/architecture/manufacturers.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/applications/architecture/consultants_contractors.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/applications/architecture/consultants_contractors.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/applications/architecture/arch_rms.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/applications/architecture/arch_rms.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/applications/automotive/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/applications/automotive/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/applications/automotive/electric-vehicles/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/applications/automotive/electric-vehicles/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/applications/automotive/brake-tube/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/applications/automotive/brake-tube/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/applications/automotive/radiators/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/applications/automotive/radiators/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/applications/electrical/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/applications/electrical/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/applications/electrical/building/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/applications/electrical/building/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/applications/electrical/energy/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/applications/electrical/energy/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/applications/electrical/pq/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/applications/electrical/pq/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/applications/busbar/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/applications/busbar/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/applications/electrical/motor-rotor/index.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/applications/electrical/motor-rotor/index.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/applications/electrical/industry_links.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/applications/electrical/industry_links.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/applications/electrical/task_group.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/applications/electrical/task_group.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/applications/plumbing/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/applications/plumbing/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/applications/plumbing/overview/Overview_main.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/applications/plumbing/overview/Overview_main.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/applications/plumbing/benefits/benefits_main.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/applications/plumbing/benefits/benefits_main.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/applications/plumbing/techcorner/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/applications/plumbing/techcorner/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/applications/plumbing/cda_rms.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/applications/plumbing/cda_rms.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/applications/doityourself/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/applications/doityourself/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/applications/plumbing/apps/applications_main.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/applications/plumbing/apps/applications_main.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/applications/plumbing/restools/resources_tools_main.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/applications/plumbing/restools/resources_tools_main.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/applications/plumbing/install_cu_piping_sys.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/applications/plumbing/install_cu_piping_sys.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/applications/plumbing/install_cu_piping_sys.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/applications/plumbing/restools/resources_tools_main.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/applications/plumbing/apps/applications_main.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/applications/doityourself/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/applications/plumbing/cda_rms.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/applications/plumbing/techcorner/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/applications/plumbing/benefits/benefits_main.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/applications/plumbing/overview/Overview_main.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/applications/plumbing/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/applications/electrical/task_group.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/applications/electrical/industry_links.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/applications/electrical/motor-rotor/index.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/applications/busbar/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/applications/electrical/pq/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/applications/electrical/energy/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/applications/electrical/building/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/applications/electrical/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/applications/automotive/radiators/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/applications/automotive/brake-tube/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/applications/automotive/electric-vehicles/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/applications/automotive/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/applications/architecture/arch_rms.htmlhttp: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Technical References HVAC/R Copper DX Geothermal Heat Pumps

o Fuel Gas Introduction Copper Fuel Gas News Specifying Copper Tube System Choice System Design Installation Publications Copper Advantages Training & Meetings System Sizing Design Figures Natural Gas Tables LP Gas Tables Inspection & Testing Contact Project Managers

o Industrial Copper Motor Rotor Casting Alloys Copper Alloy Molds Bronze Sleeve Bearings Selecting Bronze Bearing Materials Electronic Connector Design Guide Mold Design Guidelines
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homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/applications/plumbing/heatpump/dxhp_main.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/applications/plumbing/comml_tube/cmmrcl_tb_main.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/applications/plumbing/techref/techref_main.html


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o Seawater Copper Nickel

o Machined Products Free-Cutting Brass Copper and Brass Forgings Bronze Sleeve Bearings Advisory Notice

o Telecommunications Infrastructure Wiring for Homes Structured Wiring - CDROM's Communications Wiring for Today's Homes The Evolution of Telephone Cable Is Your Home Wired for the 21st Century?

o Antimicrobial Video, Audio and Podcasts

Resourceso Find Suppliers of Copper

Architectural Installation Contractors Database Copper & Copper Alloy Fabricator Database Building Products Database Service Centers Database

o Technical Reference Libraryo Publications List

Automotive Building Construction: Architecture Building Construction: Fire Sprinklers Building Construction: Home Builders' Marketing Materials
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Building Construction: Natural Gas Building Construction: Plumbing Electrical: Energy Efficiency Electrical: General Electrical: Power Quality Electrical: Telecommunications Industrial: Bronze Bearings Industrial: Cast Products Industrial: General Industrial: Machined Rod Products Industrial: Mold Alloys Properties / Standards Seawater Soldering / Brazing / Welding Special Publications Statistics / Directories

o Market Datao Standards

CDA UNS Standard Designation for Wrought and Cast Copper ASTM Standard Designation for Wrought and Cast Copper and Copper Alloys International Alloy Systems for Copper Comparison of National Standards Cross Specification Index European Numbering System for Non-Ferrous Metals Inactive Alloys

o Properties Properties of Wrought and Cast Copper Alloys
http://www.copper.org/publications/pub_list/gas.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/publications/pub_list/gas.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/publications/pub_list/plumbing.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/publications/pub_list/plumbing.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/publications/pub_list/energy_efficiency.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/publications/pub_list/energy_efficiency.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/publications/pub_list/electrical_general.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/publications/pub_list/electrical_general.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/publications/pub_list/power_quality.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/publications/pub_list/power_quality.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/publications/pub_list/telecommunications.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/publications/pub_list/telecommunications.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/publications/pub_list/bronze_bearings.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/publications/pub_list/bronze_bearings.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/publications/pub_list/cast_products.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/publications/pub_list/cast_products.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/publications/pub_list/industrial_general.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/publications/pub_list/industrial_general.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/publications/pub_list/machined_rod_products.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/publications/pub_list/machined_rod_products.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/publications/pub_list/mold_alloys.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/publications/pub_list/mold_alloys.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/publications/pub_list/properties_standards.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/publications/pub_list/properties_standards.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/publications/pub_list/marine.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/publications/pub_list/marine.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/publications/pub_list/soldering.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/publications/pub_list/soldering.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/publications/pub_list/special_publications.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/publications/pub_list/special_publications.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/publications/pub_list/statistics_directories.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/publications/pub_list/statistics_directories.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/resources/market_data/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/resources/market_data/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/resources/standards/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/resources/standards/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/resources/properties/standard-designations/introduction.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/resources/properties/standard-designations/introduction.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/resources/properties/db/SDAPropertiesSelectionServlet.jsp?service=COPPERINTRA&Action=searchhttp://www.copper.org/resources/properties/db/SDAPropertiesSelectionServlet.jsp?service=COPPERINTRA&Action=searchhttp://www.copper-key.org/index.php?lang=englishhttp://www.copper-key.org/index.php?lang=englishhttp://www.copper.org/resources/properties/euro-standards/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/resources/properties/euro-standards/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/resources/properties/specifications/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/resources/properties/specifications/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/resources/properties/standard/euronumb.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/resources/properties/standard/euronumb.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/resources/properties/standard-designations/inactive-alloys.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/resources/properties/standard-designations/inactive-alloys.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/resources/properties/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/resources/properties/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/resources/properties/db/CDAPropertiesSelectionServlet.jsp?mode=basichttp://www.copper.org/resources/properties/db/CDAPropertiesSelectionServlet.jsp?mode=basichttp://www.copper.org/resources/properties/db/CDAPropertiesSelectionServlet.jsp?mode=basichttp://www.copper.org/resources/properties/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/resources/properties/standard-designations/inactive-alloys.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/resources/properties/standard/euronumb.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/resources/properties/specifications/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/resources/properties/euro-standards/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper-key.org/index.php?lang=englishhttp://www.copper.org/resources/properties/db/SDAPropertiesSelectionServlet.jsp?service=COPPERINTRA&Action=searchhttp://www.copper.org/resources/properties/standard-designations/introduction.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/resources/standards/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/resources/market_data/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/publications/pub_list/statistics_directories.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/publications/pub_list/special_publications.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/publications/pub_list/soldering.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/publications/pub_list/marine.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/publications/pub_list/properties_standards.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/publications/pub_list/mold_alloys.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/publications/pub_list/machined_rod_products.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/publications/pub_list/industrial_general.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/publications/pub_list/cast_products.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/publications/pub_list/bronze_bearings.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/publications/pub_list/telecommunications.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/publications/pub_list/power_quality.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/publications/pub_list/electrical_general.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/publications/pub_list/energy_efficiency.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/publications/pub_list/plumbing.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/publications/pub_list/gas.html


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Properties of Copper Low Temperature Properties of Copper Cryogenic Properties of Copper Typical Uses of Copper Alloys Copper Compounds Microstructures of Copper Alloys Corrosion Protection & Resistance Fabrication Practices Powder Metallurgy Metallurgy of Copper-Base Alloys

o Questions? Consumers

o Copper in the Arts 2011 Issues 2010 Issues 2009 Issues 2008 Issues 2007 Issues Events

o Copper in Your Home Electrical & Communications Wiring Plumbing, Heating & Cooling Archtecture, Lighting & Decor Environment & Health Cookware & Decorations Do It Yourself Innovations & Technology
http://www.copper.org/resources/properties/atomic/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/resources/properties/atomic/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/resources/properties/144_8/144_8.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/resources/properties/144_8/144_8.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/resources/properties/cryogenic/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/resources/properties/cryogenic/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/resources/properties/db/CDACategoryUsesServlet.jsphttp://www.copper.org/resources/properties/db/CDACategoryUsesServlet.jsphttp://www.copper.org/applications/compounds/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/applications/compounds/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/resources/properties/microstructure/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/resources/properties/microstructure/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/resources/properties/protection/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/resources/properties/protection/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/resources/properties/db/CDAFabPracticesSelectionServlet.jsphttp://www.copper.org/resources/properties/db/CDAFabPracticesSelectionServlet.jsphttp://www.copper.org/resources/properties/129_6/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/resources/properties/129_6/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/resources/properties/703_5/703_5.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/resources/properties/703_5/703_5.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/help/db/CopperInquiryServlet.jsp?Action=reset&isWeb=Y&webID=99&service=COPPERINTRA&redirect=http://www.copper.org&post2=CopperInquiryServlet.jsphttp://www.copper.org/help/db/CopperInquiryServlet.jsp?Action=reset&isWeb=Y&webID=99&service=COPPERINTRA&redirect=http://www.copper.org&post2=CopperInquiryServlet.jsphttp://www.copper.org/consumers/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/consumers/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/consumers/arts/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/consumers/arts/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/consumers/arts/2011/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/consumers/arts/2011/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/consumers/arts/2010/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/consumers/arts/2010/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/consumers/arts/2009/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/consumers/arts/2009/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/consumers/arts/2008/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/consumers/arts/2008/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/consumers/arts/2007/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/consumers/arts/2007/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/consumers/arts/events/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/consumers/arts/events/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/consumers/copperhome/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/consumers/copperhome/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/consumers/copperhome/Electrical/wiring_home.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/consumers/copperhome/Electrical/wiring_home.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/consumers/copperhome/PHC/phc_home.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/consumers/copperhome/PHC/phc_home.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/consumers/copperhome/Architecture/architecture_home.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/consumers/copperhome/Architecture/architecture_home.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/consumers/copperhome/Env_Health/environmentandhealth_home.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/consumers/copperhome/Env_Health/environmentandhealth_home.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/consumers/copperhome/Decor/cookware_home.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/consumers/copperhome/Decor/cookware_home.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/consumers/copperhome/DIY/doityourself_home.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/consumers/copperhome/DIY/doityourself_home.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/consumers/copperhome/Technology/innovations_home.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/consumers/copperhome/Technology/innovations_home.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/consumers/copperhome/Technology/innovations_home.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/consumers/copperhome/DIY/doityourself_home.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/consumers/copperhome/Decor/cookware_home.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/consumers/copperhome/Env_Health/environmentandhealth_home.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/consumers/copperhome/Architecture/architecture_home.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/consumers/copperhome/PHC/phc_home.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/consumers/copperhome/Electrical/wiring_home.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/consumers/copperhome/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/consumers/arts/events/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/consumers/arts/2007/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/consumers/arts/2008/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/consumers/arts/2009/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/consumers/arts/2010/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/consumers/arts/2011/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/consumers/arts/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/consumers/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/help/db/CopperInquiryServlet.jsp?Action=reset&isWeb=Y&webID=99&service=COPPERINTRA&redirect=http://www.copper.org&post2=CopperInquiryServlet.jsphttp://www.copper.org/resources/properties/703_5/703_5.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/resources/properties/129_6/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/resources/properties/db/CDAFabPracticesSelectionServlet.jsphttp://www.copper.org/resources/properties/protection/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/resources/properties/microstructure/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/applications/compounds/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/resources/properties/db/CDACategoryUsesServlet.jsphttp://www.copper.org/resources/properties/cryogenic/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/resources/properties/144_8/144_8.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/resources/properties/atomic/homepage.html


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Home Planning Series FAQs - Frequently Asked Questions Copper Links Copper News

o Copper & Human Health CDA UK Article: Copper in Human Health

Educationo Copper Productiono Copper Facts

Communications Electrical Electronics Did You Know? Health Copper in the Home Copper in Household Products By the Way An Important Natural Resource Plumbing Roofing Copper in Transportation & Industry

o History of Copper 60 Centuries of Copper Copper in the USA

o The Statue of Liberty Concept Construction & Installation
http://www.copper.org/consumers/copperhome/HomePlan/Hm_plnng_homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/consumers/copperhome/HomePlan/Hm_plnng_homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/consumers/copperhome/FAQ_Main.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/consumers/copperhome/FAQ_Main.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/consumers/copperhome/Cu_links.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/consumers/copperhome/Cu_links.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/consumers/copperhome/cu_news.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/consumers/copperhome/cu_news.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/consumers/health/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/consumers/health/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/consumers/health/papers/cu_health_uk/cu_health_uk.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/consumers/health/papers/cu_health_uk/cu_health_uk.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/education/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/education/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/education/production.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/education/production.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/education/c-facts/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/education/c-facts/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/education/c-facts/c-communications.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/education/c-facts/c-communications.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/education/c-facts/c-electrical.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/education/c-facts/c-electrical.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/education/c-facts/c-electronics.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/education/c-facts/c-electronics.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/education/c-facts/c-general.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/education/c-facts/c-general.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/education/c-facts/c-health.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/education/c-facts/c-health.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/education/c-facts/c-home.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/education/c-facts/c-home.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/education/c-facts/c-household.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/education/c-facts/c-household.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/education/c-facts/c-liberty.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/education/c-facts/c-liberty.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/education/c-facts/c-natural_resource.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/education/c-facts/c-natural_resource.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/education/c-facts/c-plumbing.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/education/c-facts/c-plumbing.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/education/c-facts/c-roofing.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/education/c-facts/c-roofing.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/education/c-facts/c-trans_industry.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/education/c-facts/c-trans_industry.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/education/history/copper.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/education/history/copper.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/education/history/60centuries/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/education/history/60centuries/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/education/history/g_fact.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/education/history/g_fact.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/education/statue_of_liberty.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/education/statue_of_liberty.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/education/liberty/liberty_design1.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/education/liberty/liberty_design1.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/education/liberty/liberty_design2.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/education/liberty/liberty_design2.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/education/liberty/liberty_design2.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/education/liberty/liberty_design1.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/education/statue_of_liberty.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/education/history/g_fact.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/education/history/60centuries/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/education/history/copper.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/education/c-facts/c-trans_industry.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/education/c-facts/c-roofing.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/education/c-facts/c-plumbing.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/education/c-facts/c-natural_resource.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/education/c-facts/c-liberty.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/education/c-facts/c-household.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/education/c-facts/c-home.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/education/c-facts/c-health.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/education/c-facts/c-general.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/education/c-facts/c-electronics.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/education/c-facts/c-electrical.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/education/c-facts/c-communications.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/education/c-facts/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/education/production.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/education/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/consumers/health/papers/cu_health_uk/cu_health_uk.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/consumers/health/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/consumers/copperhome/cu_news.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/consumers/copperhome/Cu_links.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/consumers/copperhome/FAQ_Main.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/consumers/copperhome/HomePlan/Hm_plnng_homepage.html


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Facts & Figures Repair Concerns Repair Details Reclothed Lady

o Copper & Kids Fingerprint Disinfection Test Copper Experiment Seek a Word Connect the Dots Private Whys? Where Does Copper Come From? Copper Production: From Mine to Mill Product

Environmento Mining & Recycling

Copper - The World's Most Reusable Resource Recycling of Copper Trends In Copper Alloy Scrap In The U.S.

o Green Properties of Copper Why Consider Copper a Sustainable Material Copper in Buildings Copper in Energy Systems

o Copper in Drinking Water How The Copper Industry Helps Solve Corrosion Problems Lead-free Solders for Drinking Water Plumbing Systems SDWA and Copper Alloys SDWA and Copper Alloys: FAQs

o Copper in the Natural Environment
http://www.copper.org/education/liberty/liberty_design3.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/education/liberty/liberty_design3.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/education/liberty/liberty_reclothed1.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/education/liberty/liberty_reclothed1.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/education/liberty/liberty_reclothed2.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/education/liberty/liberty_reclothed2.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/education/liberty/liberty_reclothed3.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/education/liberty/liberty_reclothed3.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/education/Kids/copperandkids_home.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/education/Kids/copperandkids_home.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/education/Kids/fingerprint_disinfection_test.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/education/Kids/fingerprint_disinfection_test.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/education/Kids/copperandkids_cuexperiment.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/education/Kids/copperandkids_cuexperiment.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/education/Kids/copperandkids_seekaword.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/education/Kids/copperandkids_seekaword.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/education/Kids/copperandkids_connectthedots.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/education/Kids/copperandkids_connectthedots.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/education/Kids/pwhys/privatewhys_home.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/education/Kids/pwhys/privatewhys_home.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/education/Kids/copperandkids_wheredoescopper.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/education/Kids/copperandkids_wheredoescopper.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/education/Kids/copper_production.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/education/Kids/copper_production.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/environment/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/environment/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/environment/recycling.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/environment/recycling.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/environment/g_recycl.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/environment/g_recycl.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/environment/uk/ukrecyc.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/environment/uk/ukrecyc.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/environment/trends/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/environment/trends/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/environment/green/properties.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/environment/green/properties.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/environment/green/sustainable_material.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/environment/green/sustainable_material.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/environment/green/buildings.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/environment/green/buildings.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/environment/green/energy.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/environment/green/energy.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/environment/drinking-water.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/environment/drinking-water.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/environment/NACE02122/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/environment/NACE02122/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/environment/e_p_lead.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/environment/e_p_lead.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/environment/sdwa/sdwa_intro.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/environment/sdwa/sdwa_intro.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/environment/sdwa/sdwa_faq.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/environment/sdwa/sdwa_faq.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/environment/natural-environment.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/environment/natural-environment.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/environment/natural-environment.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/environment/sdwa/sdwa_faq.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/environment/sdwa/sdwa_intro.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/environment/e_p_lead.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/environment/NACE02122/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/environment/drinking-water.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/environment/green/energy.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/environment/green/buildings.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/environment/green/sustainable_material.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/environment/green/properties.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/environment/trends/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/environment/uk/ukrecyc.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/environment/g_recycl.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/environment/recycling.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/environment/homepage.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/education/Kids/copper_production.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/education/Kids/copperandkids_wheredoescopper.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/education/Kids/pwhys/privatewhys_home.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/education/Kids/copperandkids_connectthedots.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/education/Kids/copperandkids_seekaword.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/education/Kids/copperandkids_cuexperiment.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/education/Kids/fingerprint_disinfection_test.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/education/Kids/copperandkids_home.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/education/liberty/liberty_reclothed3.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/education/liberty/liberty_reclothed2.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/education/liberty/liberty_reclothed1.htmlhttp://www.copper.org/education/liberty/liberty_design3.html


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The Biological Importance of Copper Copper Roof Stormwater Runoff Copper in Brake Pads Case Studies

Publicationso Newsletters

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Seawater

Copper NickelMaterials Selection For High Reliability Copper Alloy Seawater System
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Adapted from original paper 'Materials Selection for High Reliability Seawater Systems'

Brian Todd, Consultant to Nickel Development Institute

Introduction Corrosion Considerations

Effect of Velocity Effect of Temperature

Materials Selection in Seawater Systems Piping

Low Initial Cost Systems High Reliability Systems - General Copper Alloy Systems

Valves General Valve Bodies Nonferrous Systems Valve Seats and Stems Nonferrous Systems Effect of Valve Design on Materials Selection Galvanic Considerations in Valves

Seawater Pumps Pump Casings Pump Impellers

Waterboxes Strainers

Interactions within the System Galvanic Effects Chemical Additions

Conclusion Appendix

Copper-tin, copper-aluminium and copper-zinc alloys
http://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#inthttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#inthttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#corhttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#corhttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#effvhttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#effvhttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#effthttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#effthttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#mathttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#mathttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#piphttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#piphttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#lowhttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#lowhttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#highttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#highttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#cophttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#cophttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#valhttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#valhttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#genhttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#genhttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#valbnonhttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#valbnonhttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#valbnonhttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#valbnonhttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#valsnonhttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#valsnonhttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#valsnonhttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#valsnonhttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#effhttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#effhttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#galchttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#galchttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#seahttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#seahttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#pumchttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#pumchttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#pumihttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#pumihttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#wathttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#wathttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#strhttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#strhttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#interhttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#interhttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#galehttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#galehttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#chehttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#chehttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#conhttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#conhttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#appendhttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#appendhttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#copper-tinhttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#copper-tinhttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#copper-tinhttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#appendhttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#conhttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#chehttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#galehttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#interhttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#strhttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#wathttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#pumihttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#pumchttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#seahttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#galchttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#effhttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#valsnonhttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#valbnonhttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#genhttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#valhttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#cophttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#highttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#lowhttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#piphttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#mathttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#effthttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#effvhttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#corhttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#int


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Alloys of nickel and copper References

INTRODUCTION

Seawater systems are used by many industries such as shipping, offshore oil and gas production,

power plants and coastal industrial plants. The main use of seawater is for cooling purposes but it is

also used for fire-fighting, oil field water injection and for desalination plants.

The corrosion problems in these systems have been well studied over many years, but despite

published information(1)

on materials behavior in seawater, failures still occur.

Economic factors have to be considered in selecting materials for these systems and in this context,

essentially two types of system can be considered, as follows:

1.

A low initial cost system largely based on carbon steel and cast iron which will requireconsiderable maintenance over the life of the plant. Such a system is a reasonable choice in

areas where labor costs are low and material is readily available.

2. A system based mainly on alloy materials which, if correctly designed and fabricated, willrequire minimum maintenance and will function reliably. Rising labor costs in most

industries, together with the need for high reliability in capital intensive plant has produced

a trend to this type of system.

In practice many systems are a mixture of these two logical approaches resulting in the high initial

costs of one and the high maintenance costs of the other. For example, a plant which has

experienced costly replacement to galvanized steel piping may replace it with copper alloy piping

leaving valves fittings, etc., in carbon steel and cast iron. The resulting galvanic corrosion effects

result in reduced life for these parts. Thus, higher initial costs have resulted in reduced reliability and

high maintenance costs.

It is essential therefore in selecting materials for seawater systems to treat the system as a

whole. This should include the heat exchangers where these are part of the system. However, this

paper is confined to the seawater systems.

Another source of problems is the different requirements of plant builders and plant operators. The

former, often bidding under competitive economic pressures, has to meet the normal one-yearguarantee at minimum cost. Seawater, although corrosive, does not normally cause rapid

catastrophic failures. For example, carbon steel immersed in seawater corrodes at about 0.1 mm/yr;

whereas in, say, dilute acid, it corrodes at 100 times that rate. It is possible, therefore, to build a

seawater system largely from carbon steel and cast iron to meet the guarantee requirement.

The plant operator, however, may require a 20-year trouble-free life but is often unwilling to specify

the required material and accept the higher initial costs. It is not unusual to find a process plan

successfully handling corrosive acids but shut-down because of problems in its seawater system

which has not been given the same care in materials selection as the process equipment.
http://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#alloyshttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#alloyshttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#refhttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#refhttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#1http://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#1http://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#1http://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#1http://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#refhttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#alloys


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Materials selection for the two basic systems specified above are given in the following sections. It

should be noted, however, that various studies of materials in seawater systems have concluded,(2-

5)that systems based on alloy materials are more economic on a life cycle cost basis.

Back to Top

CORROSION CONSIDERATIONS

The corrosion behavior of materials commonly used in seawater systems has been reviewed by the

author in(6)

. Data from this review will be used in this paper and only two factors influencing

corrosion behavior, namely velocity and temperature, will be considered here.

Effect of Velocity

Velocity is the most important single factor influencing design and corrosion in seawater systems.

Velocity of seawater through the system influences pressure losses and thus pumping costs.

The design velocity chosen controls the dimensions of many components, for example, piping and

valves. As the costs of these components increase rapidly with pipe diameter, then pumping costs

and component costs have to be optimized. However, velocity also influences the corrosion behavior

of the materials, and the design value chosen is often controlled by corrosion considerations.

Corrosion of carbon steel in seawater is controlled by the availability of oxygen to the metal surface.

Thus, under static conditions, carbon steel corrodes at between 0.1 and 0.2 mm/yr, reflecting the

oxygen level and temperature variations in different locations. Pitting also occurs.

As velocity causes a mass flow of oxygen to the surface, corrosion is very dependent on flow rate

and can increase by a factor of 100 in moving from static (zero velocity) to high velocity (40 m/s)conditions.

Galvanizing confers only limited benefit under flow conditions, as corrosion of zinc also increases

with velocity. For the thicknesses normally used in seawater piping, it will extend the life of the pipe

for about six months.

The copper base alloys are velocity limited as impingement attack occurs when the hydrodynamic

effect caused by seawater flow(6)

across the surface of such alloys exceeds the value at which

protective films are removed and erosion-corrosion occurs. Thus, these alloys, if they are to exhibit

high corrosion resistance must be used at design velocities below this limiting value.

Stainless steels are not subject to impingement attack, but are prone to pitting and crevice corrosion

under low velocity conditions and this must be taken into consideration when these alloys are used

in seawater.

Nickel base alloys such as InconelTM

Alloy 625, HastelloysTM

C-276 and C-22 and titanium are not

subject to pitting or crevice corrosion in low velocity seawater, nor do they suffer impingement

attack at high velocity. However, price limits their use to special applications in seawater systems.

Table 1 provides data on some of the materials commonly used in seawater systems. Details of of

copper alloy compositions are given in theAppendix.
http://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#2http://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#2http://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#2http://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#2http://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#tophttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#tophttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#6http://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#6http://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#6http://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#6http://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#6http://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#appendhttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#appendhttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#appendhttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#appendhttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#6http://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#6http://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#tophttp://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#2http://www.copper.org/applications/cuni/txt_materials_selection.html#2


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Alloy

Quiet seawater

0-0.6m/s

8.2 m/s

corrosionrate mm/year

35-42 m/s

corrosion ratemm/year

Average

corrosion ratein mm/year

Maximum

pittingmm

Carbon steel 0.075* 2.0 - 4.5

Grey cast iron 0.55

(graphitised)

4.9 4.4 13.2

Admiralty Gunmetal 0.027+

0.25 0.9 1.07

85/5/5/5 Cu Sn Pb Zn 0.017+

0.32 1.8 1.32

Ni Resist Cast Iron Type

1B

0.02++

Nil 0.2 0.97

Ni Al Bronze

(BS 1400 AB2-C)

0.055+++

1.12 0.22 0.97

70/30 Cu Ni + Iron


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Alloy

Quiet seawater

0-0.6m/s

8.2 m/s

corrosionrate mm/year

35-42 m/s

corrosion ratemm/year

Average

corrosion ratein mm/year

Maximum

pittingmm

Please Note: All of the above data (except velocity data for 6% Mo stainless) are taken from actual

test results and are thus not exactly reproducible. This is particularly true of the maximum depth of

pitting which may vary widely from test to test.

Because of the importance of velocity, it is usual in many systems to base design of pipe diameters

on this factor and allowable design velocities are assigned to commonly used pipe materials.(7)

In considering velocity, it is important to note that local velocities may vary considerably from designvelocity. This is particularly important where features of the system such as small radius bends,

orifices, partly throttled valves, misaligned flanges, etc., which can generate turbulence, give rise to

local high velocities which may accelerate corrosion. It follows that design and fabrication of the

system should aim at minimizing turbulence raisers.Back to Top

Effect of Temperature

Few data are available on the effect of temperature within the range normally encountered in

seawater systems. It has been noted at LaQue Center of Corrosion Technology that corrosion of

carbon steel increases by approximately 50% between the winter (average temperature 7C) and

summer (27-29C). Although oxygen solubility tends to fall with rise in temperature, the higher

temperature tends to increase reaction rate. Evidence from work(8)

on steel in potable waters

suggests that the temperature effect is more important and corrosion, for steel, will increase with

temperature.

For copper alloys, increase in temperature accelerates film formation; this takes about 1 day at 15C,

whereas, it may take a week or more at 2C. It is important to continue initial circulation of clean

seawater long enough for initial film formation for all copper alloys. More time is needed for winter

than for summer start-ups.

For stainless steels and other alloys prone to pitting and crevice corrosion, increase of temperature

tends to facilitate initiation of these types of attack. However, data on propagation rate(9)

suggest

that this declines with rise in temperature. The net effect of these conflicting tendencies is not

always predictable. Temperature also influences biological activity which may, in turn, influence

corrosion.

Back to Top

MATERIALS SELECTION IN SEAWATER SYSTEMS

Piping
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For low initial cost systems, materials such as mild steel, cast iron and steel with cement or organic

coatings are used for piping. Data on steels show that the corrosion rate in flowing seawater

increases from about 0.1 mm/yr under static conditions to almost 1 mm/yr at 3 m/s. As velocities in

local areas of turbulence can easily exceed 3 m/s, even when the design velocity is much lower,

corrosion tends to be accelerated in such areas. Also, as pipe thickness tends to increase with

diameter, experience in systems with steel pipes show that failures commence first in the smaller

diameters and, as the service life increases, failures occur on larger diameters so that repair costs

accelerate with time. Cast iron behaves in a similar way to carbon steel. Small diameter steel or cast

iron pipes are also easily clogged by corrosion products if not in continuous service.

Cement lined pipes are sometimes used. The main considerations here are:

1. Need for care in handling and fitting. If pieces of the lining break off, the area of bare steelexposed is anodic to the steel embedded in the cement. Potential differences up to 400 mv

have been measured(10)

between embedded and exposed steel. The corrosion rate in such a

cell will be determined by the flow of oxygen through the cement and, as the area

relationship of embedded to exposed steel is high, the corrosion rate can be high.

2. Joints at valves and fittings. Similar considerations apply as in item 1,above). All joints mustbe covered with a cement lining if corrosion is to be avoided.

3. Spalling off of linings. If corrosion occurs, then the corrosion product produced will tend tocause the lining to spall off and pieces of lining can partially block heat exchanger tubing

causing local impingement attack. Physical damage can also cause the lining to spall with

similar results.

Cement linings are most effective in long, straight runs of large (over 1 m) diameter. The ability to

maintain lining integrity decreases rapidly with diameter, number of fittings and valves.

Other types of linings have been considered and sometimes used for seawater piping. A study by

BSRA(11)

on a wide range of pipe linings showed that only two, namely chlorprene and soft natural

rubber withstood laboratory tests simulating shipboard conditions. In terms of piping costs they

offered economic advantage over non-ferrous piping only in sizes above about 150 mm diameter.

This study did not compare installed costs and Lim(12)

found that installed cost of lined pipe on an

offshore platform showed only a marginal cost advantage over 90-10 Cu-Ni piping. The advantage in

materials cost being offset by the extra care needed for installation.

High Reliability Systems - General

In marine engineering upgrading from steel has traditionally meant a change to copper-base alloys.

High reliability systems based on copper-base alloys will now be considered.

Copper-Alloy Systems

Two copper-base alloys have been widely used for seawater handling, namely aluminum brass and

90-10 Cu-Ni although in recent years, particularly for large diameter piping there has been a strong

trend towards 90-10 Cu-Ni. When using non-ferrous piping the system must be designed on the
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basis of water velocity in order to avoid impingement attack, even when some turbulence (which

will give rise to high local velocities) may occur.

FIGURE 1. Relationship between water velocity and

probability of impingement attack in seawater for copper, aluminium-brass, 90-10 Cu-Ni, and 70-30

Cu-Ni

Figure 1,(13)

indicates how the probability of failure of impingement attack increases with designvelocity. For a system with high reliability acceptable design velocities are as follows:

Copper 0.75 m/s

Aluminum brass 2.5 m/s

90-10 Cu-Ni 3.0 m/s

70-30 Cu-Ni 3.5 m/s

The use of 70-30 Cu-Ni is confined to submarines where its high strength is advantageous. Due to

the low design velocity and hence large pipe sizes, copper is uneconomical except for small diameter

piping for essentially domestic applications, so that the real choice is between 90-10 Cu-Ni and

aluminum brass. Both materials are technically suitable, provided the system is designed to the

water velocities given above and both have been successfully used in many seawater systems.

However, the current trend is towards the use of 90-10 Cu-Ni, the reasons for this being:

1. Its better weldability. Although aluminum brass can be welded using aluminum bronze fillermaterials, this is a relatively difficult procedure. Silver brazing is also used but this is

expensive; firstly, because a high silver content (50% min) alloy is needed to provide the

required corrosion resistance; and secondly, because the technique is difficult and time

consuming for diameters above about 50 mm.

2. Its high stress corrosion resistance. 90-10 Cu-Ni does not normally require any stress reliefheat treatment after fabrication. Aluminum brass requires stress relief to avoid the

possibility of stress corrosion cracking to which it is susceptible in seawater.

3. Its good experience. Gilbert(14)reports only nine cases of premature failure over a period of20 years. This is a remarkable result considering the large tonnage of the alloy in use

throughout the world. Only three of the failures involved excessive turbulence, suggestingcurrent design velocities may be conservative.
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It is also relevant to note that most of the world's navies have standardized on 90-10 Cu-Ni for piping

in surface vessels, thus ensuring worldwide availability of facilities for fabrication of the alloy.

Some use has been made of aluminum bronzes for piping in components such as pump columns.

Nickel aluminum bronze is preferred for seawater, and usually in case form (BS 1400 AB2 or UNS

C95800). Care is needed with components fabricated from plate as the heat affected zones are

sensitive to selective phase corrosion (dealuminification) which can lead to cracking. Risk of this can

be reduced (but not eliminated) by heat treatment (at 650-675C for six hours) after welding.

The design water velocities given above have been proved in service over many years and, as

experience has been good, there has been a tendency to raise them to achieve economies in pipe

costs. British Standard BSMA 18 allows up to 3.0 m/s for aluminum brass and 3.5 m/s for 90-10 Cu-Ni

pipe for bores above 100 mm. Below this size the velocity is reduced progressively. Although it is

logical from a consideration of water flow through pipes, to expect a reduction in risk of

impingement attack with increase in diameter and hence to allow higher water speeds in larger

diameter pipes, there are few data on which to base design. One approach to this problem is to use

the results obtained by Efird(15)

which relate the onset of impingement attack to a critical shear

stress (resulting from the flow velocity) and pipe diameter. If the value of critical shear stress of 43.1

N/m2

(0.9 lb/ft2) for 90-10 Cu-Ni is accepted, then it is possible to relate critical shear stress to pipe

diameter at a given seawater temperature.

Table 2 provides some data for seawater at 5C (Higher temperatures would give higher critical

velocities.)

TABLE 2.Effect of pipe diameter on critical velocity in seawater at 5C for 90-10 Cu-Ni

Minimum pipe diameter

mm*

Calculated critical velocity

for impingement

m/s

72.15 4.70

103.00 4.85

154.25 5.08

212.30 5.25

315.00 5.42

447.20 5.52

* From Table 2 in British Standard BSMA 18
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The values in Table 2 are based on parallel flow tests over plane specimens and, as would be

expected, are higher than design water velocities which must allow for local turbulence effects.

Thus, these absolute values should not be used as design values but could provide a guide to the

designer to vary design water velocity with diameter to economise in system costs.Back to Top

Many corrosion problems in seawater systems occur in valves. Often such problems are due to the

use of steel or cast iron valves with non-ferrous piping. Although the life of such valves in a steel or

cast iron pipe system is short (i.e., two to three years) when fitted in a alloy system, it may be less

than a year due to the galvanic effects from the piping.

The three main components of a valve are the body, valve seats and the shafts or stems; these will

be considered separately. It should be noted, however, in a system with a nominal seawater velocity

of a few meters-per-second flow through the valve, that the valve, depending on its design, may give

rise to turbulence and much higher local velocities, particularly when the valves are used for

throttling.Back to Top

Valve Bodies Non-Ferrous Systems

The basic low cost valve used in ferrous pipe systems has a cast iron body with 60-40 brass internals.

Depending on design, corrosion rates of several millimeters per year can occur on the body. The

body cathodically protects the internals (until a layer of graphitic corrosion product forms) and the

valve will function for two to three years.

Coatings on valve bodies are often used but their success depends mainly on the valve design (see

later). In all cases, the life of the coating depends on its integrity, as manufactured, after installation

and in service. Any break in a coating can result in intense corrosion and perforation or the valve

body.

Upgrading of valve body materials to give higher reliability requires the use of alloys with good

corrosion resistance. Such materials are copper base alloys such as nickel aluminum bronzes,

Admiralty and leaded gunmetals and cast Cu-Nis. All these alloys are characterized by good

resistance to static seawater (necessary for shut-down conditions) and to flowing seawater. Table

3 gives some data under static and flowing conditions.

TABLE 3. Effect of velocity of some cast copper base alloys

Alloy

Quiet seawater

0.06 m/sec

Moderate

velocity

8.25

m/sec

High velocity tests

35-42 m/sec
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General

corrosion

mm/year

Maximum

pitting

mm

Corrosion

mm

material pipa sea

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