influencia de otros paises en inglaterra

7/29/2019 Influencia de Otros Paises en Inglaterra

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INDIAN INFLUENCE

-HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

In the XV century appeared in the south-west some huntersthat spoke in*athabascana language , that was from the family of some languagesfrom Alaska andthe west of Canada, that had emigrated to the south through the*Great Plains of the

west. They sacked the villages, looking for food and then, they soldtheir prisoners.They lerned from the indians to cultivate the earth. In the presentday, thse indiansare the Navahos and several groups of *Apaches.

SOUTH-WEST ZONE

Some of the South-wests groups are the*Cherokees, the*Choctaw, the*Chickasaw, the *Creek, etc... This zone includes Arizona, New

Mexico, themeridional part of Colorado and the states of Sonora andChihuahua.

THE GREAT PLAINS ZONE

They are meadows from the centre of Canada to Mexico(through the suth),and from the mid-west to the Rocky Mountains ( through the west).The habits ofthese indian groups are the most famous from them: feathers and*tepee kind ofhousing.During the XIX century, when the settlers invaded their territories,these indiangroupsbecame famous by the newspapers, magazines andphotographies.Between the first groups from the plains are the blackfoot indians (bison hunters),the *mondans and the *hidatsa.

(The ilustrations are at the pages:10,11 , and 12 ).


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-LEXICAL ADOPTION, BORROWINGS,ETYMOLOGIES

The english-speaking settlers came into contact with a largenumber ofdifferent languages. Some of the more famous groups of influencewere clasificated inthis way: the Algoquian, the Iroquoian, the Siouan, the Uto-Aztecanand Petunian.We have to know something about the nature of these languages tostudy the processof borrowing. Some of the most important characteristics of theirlanguge are:nasalized vowels and carious kinds of pharyngealized and glottalized

consonats. Theenglish speakers would tend to approximate to these sounds ratherthan to reproducethem. There were some combinations of consonants , such as mtik,pshikye,etc thatwere impossible to pronunciate to the english speakers, so yhey tendto eliminateconsonants or maybe to introduce vowels.. So its not surprising thatindian wordswould be changed considerably. Some of the words that remainnowadays are only

said in certain regions, only where the objet or animal is given, forexample:scuppernong and cayuse and menhaden are likely to be betterknown in the coastalsouth, the west and New England than in other parts of the country.The most part of remain words are the names of plants, animals andfoods which thecolonists fuond in the New World and were new to them.There were a list of 132 words adopted from the indian. In 1958, nomore than 37 ofthem were in use.In the intervening twenty-odd years, others on thelist have becomeeven less familiar. Word borrowing from the Indians began veryearly. Moose,raccoon, opossum, terrapin andpersimmon are all recorded prior tothe the landingof the Pilgrims.

The etymologies come from a popular or unlearned effort toresolve a strange or unusual word into understandable elements.Forexample, the muskrat, a rodent with a musky odor,called muskwessuor muscassus, in the Algoquian languages.

Another example is the virginianpawcohiccora, the original form ofhickory, was a term applied to a hickory or walnut kernel mush, and


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the word which gave rise to present day moose meant he strips oreats off.Most languages tend to change or reform the borrowed forms,sometimes because they found difficult to pronunciate them in theway it is pronaunced, usually in the direction of simplification or

shortening.

CHANGES IN MEANINGS, PRONUNCIATIONAND OR SPELLING.

Loan words are liable to change after they have become anaturalized part of the english language.For example, tribal names ,such as Catawba, meaning separated, was applied in turn to aSiouan tribe living in Carolina, then to a grape grown in that

particular area, next to the wine made from the grape, and finally tothe red color characteristic of the wine. Chinook, also original a triballabel, has become the name of a language (and, in Chinook Jargon, ofa contact variety), two different kinds of winds, and a variety ofsalmon. These examples are sufficient to make the point that once aforeing word is adopted into a language, it is liable to the applicationof all the forces making for semantic development and alteration inthat language.

In Pidgin English and in other contact languages words ghangetheir grammatical functions. Many of the indian loan words has beenused as verbs:caucus, pwwwow, tomahawk, hickory, skunk, wigwam,

potlach and mugwump are rarely used as verbs, as, in general,verbal use is attested not long after the original noun adoption.

Another significant change is the fact that nost of the borrowednouns entered into compuond-word combinations.. Websters NewInternational Dictionary listed fifteen compounds for hickory,fourteen for squaw and twelve for skunk.

The change in pronunciation was very frequent, as the indianlanguage was a particular one, that was very difficult to bepronounced to the English speakers. The indian words had a largecombination of consonants that English language didnt have, andthats the reason for eliminating some of these consonants orsometimes inserting vowels to be able to pronounce it.

TOPONYMIES

It is well known that large numbers of place names in theUnited States come from the Indian languages, such as names ofcities, states, counties, islands, rivers and lakes. Chicago, forexample, come from an Algoquian word that means garlic field.

Some of these place names later developed an interesting type

of meaning change. Mackinaw, the name of the island at the junction


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of lakes Huron and Michigan, was a shortening ofMichilimackinac,meaning great turtle.

FRENCH INFLUENCE

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

The english speakers colonists soon met the French. Explrers,

trappers, traders, and misionaries had streamed into the valleys ofthe St. Lawrence and the Mississippi, following hard upon the trail ofChamplain and La Salle. By 1700, the French has all the strategicpoints along these rivers, and a number of vital points on the shoresof the Great Lakes as well.

Since 1599, they established stalls of commerce with furs alongthe St. Lawrence river. This was one of the most important economicsupport for the French.

New Orleans was, in that period, the most europian city of theamerican cities. It boasted a prosperous theatrer which catered towealthy arisocrats from all over the South. But New Orleans was a

port city too, with saliors of all nationalities who corresponded to thefrontier rowdies. In New Orleans, a Creole French alternated withstandard French.

LEXICAL ADOPTIONS, BORROWINGS,ETYMOLOGIES

Standard French was more pretigeous than any other languagethat came into contact with the Anglo-saxons.

The french loan words are considerably fewer that the indianones, but many of the same problems present themselves in thecompilation of what might be considered an authentic list. In thesame regions, words like bidetare familiar to at least some groups inthe population, but hardly part of the vocabulary of the generalpopulace.

Like the American Indian loan words, many Frech borrowingshave long since ceased to be an active part of the language. In 1902Sylva Clapin listed 102 French loan words in his New Dictionary of

Americanisms.The French loan words are divided in two groups:

-The words concerning to exploration and travel, or descriptive offeatures of the landscape. These terms come fron the contact


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between English and French in the central states, as did,undoubtedly, such miscellaneous items as charivari, calumetandlacrosse.-The words concerning to the food, like jambalaya, praline andsazarac suggest the superb chefs, confectioners, and bartenders of

the New Orleans area.The borrowings from the French appear chiefly during the

eighteenth and nineteenth ceturies. The earliest citation for caribouis 1672; that forportage is 1698. In the ninetennth century theenglish language in general, borrowed more words from continentalFrench that at any time since the period of Norman French influence.

In general, Frech borrowings were terms dealing with art,literature, dress, textiles, furniture and cooking in the main.

Some of the French loan words had originated in otherlanguages. An example of etymology is bayou. It was a Chotaw wordmeaning river or creek. In Texas and the West the word means a

deep inlet which affords a channel for the water in times of flood butremains dry or nearly so at other seasons.

Not all the etymologies are clear. For exapmle, Chowderappears to have been takenfrom breton chaudire, cauldron. Bustthe most etymological problem is refered to the word shanty, whichis ascribed by some scholars to Canadian French chantier, shed forstoring timber, and by others to Irish sean old and tigh, house.

CHANGES IN MEANINGS, PRONUNCIATION

AND/OR SPELLINGS

The French loan words werent so difficult to pronounce to theEnglish speakers than Indians words were. The French loan wordswerent as violenty distored. Even though, the spelling have beenconsiderably alterd at times, as in the case ofgopherfrom gaufrehoneycomb; a radical change in pronunciation is not implied.

The most pronounced tendency is to stress the first syllable, orat any rate to shift it foward, as evidenced in coulee, bureau, depot,

picayune, and many others in the list, but this has always beencharacteristic of the English treatment of French loan words. Englishdoes not have a sound like French u; consequently the stressedvowels ofbutte, flume and bureau were dealt with according toEnglish phonetic patterns.

The changes in meaning in the French loan words are morecomplex than the changes in the Indian loan words, partly, becausemany of the words are a second borrowing of the same term.Portage, for example, have existed in English with a number ofmeanings, some of which were archaic when the word was borrowedin the present. Dime, in general, means one-tenth, and came into

British English in 1377,but it has dropped out the languagealtogether pior to its revival as part of their monetary terminology.


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One of the most interesting series of changes has ocurred inconnection with depot(pronounced dee-po in the South prior toWorld War II, but reverting under military influence to somethingcloser to the French pronunciation. In the late XVIII century, it meantthe act of depositing, then the deposit of collection itself, and later a

place where virtually something may be deposited. Later, depotcame to be used for a passenger satation. And came into its ownagain in connetion with transcontinental bus travel.

With respect to compuond formations, the most profilic of theborrowed words are prairie, that has more than eighty combinations.Gopherhas fourteen, but there is a tipically American bit of verbalhumor in its figurative uses

TOPONYMIES

Because of the several colonies that France got in the colonialperiod, there are several names of cities and states names in TheUnited Satates, like Lousiana, that was called in this way in thehonour of Luis XIV.

There are other toponymics words like: bayou, butte, chute,coulee, crevasse,etc...

DUTCH INFLUENCE


Holland developed a mode of life and a culture in thesettlement in the Houston Valley. Its industrious burghers andpowerful patroons became a part of the English colonial empire, inthe trade referred to above, in 1664, but its sailors had been incontact with the New World.

This was the world of Walter the Doubter, William the Testy,and hard-headed Peter Stuyvesant, known to many mainly through

Washington Irvings Knickerbocker History.. Irving give us a picture ofthe general culture of the area.


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Holland didnt get much colonies, because it wasnt a greatempire, and it had to dedicate to the commerce (it had a big furscommerce).

LEXICAL ADOPTIONS, BORROWINGS,ETYMOLOGIES.

Although there are only twenty-seven words listed, their use ismore extended and general that the Spanish or French loan words.Six of them are refered to food names, but aside from these thereare few which represent any particular class of idea or sphere ofactivity.

Some of the terms are wholly or in part translations rather thandirect appropiations from the Dutch lexicon. These are some

examples: Pot cheese is modeled on Dutchpot kes. Saw buckcuoldhave been formed either on the basis of Dutch zaagbockor GermanSgebock.

A stronger case for language-contact origins can be made forYankee, for which Dutch Jan Kees (John Cheese), is only oneposibility.

About etymologies, we find that a number of words took onlyone meaning from the language of the Low countries, but have othermeanings which already existed in English, for examplepit, in thesense of the hard kernel of a peach or cherry. Its the only meaningthat was taken from the Dutch, other meanings of this word were

already common to both languages.

CHANGES IN MEANING, PRONUNCIATIONAND/OR SPELLING.

The word caboose presents the most unusual example ofchange in meaning. At the outset, it was used with reference to aships galley, and it is still employed in Great Britain. Some of theAmerican meanings are: outdoor oven, hut, and finally its present

meaning of a car serving as the headquarters for a freight train crew.In the wagon trains that carried the prisoneers westward, thecaboose was the wagon for the provisions.

Some of the changes in pronunciation come from the fact thatAmerican English didnt have the [a] vowel offather, the [ ] vowel,as in log, developed as the closets approximation. A good many ofthe words now spelled with oo, some of them are spelled with thevowel offood, were spelled oe in Dutch, and pronounced with thevowel ofpull.This was true ofhoek, snoepen, and stoep, thatcorresponded to English hook, snoop, and stoop, respectively.

There were also chages in functions, like:pit, boss, and sleigh,that were all changed into verbs. Boodle, perhaps, the outstandingillustration of the tendency to form derivates. The Oxford English


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Dictionarylists boodleize, boodleism, boodler, boodlerism, andboodling, and the Dictionary of Aericanisms adds boodleryto the list.

TOPONYMY

There are names of places that come from the Dutch, such asHellegat.And some toponymics like: bush (back country) and hook(of land).

GERMAN INFLUENCE


The German migrations to America were given in three or fourmajor waves. The most imporatant are:

-1683: the first migrations,from the southwest part of Germany. Theybegun to settle in Pennsylvania. By 1775, they were abuot 90.000,largely from the Rhenish Palatinate. These Germans developed alanguage consisting in a mixture of several dialects of their own andEnglish words and constructions.-1830 (reached its crest in 1849). It was after the collapse of theliberal movement in the fatherland, when some patriots like CarlSchurz came to this country. Although many German ruralcommunities sprang up as a result of the movement, much of thesettlement was metropolitan. In Milwaukee, Chicago, Cleveland,

Cincinnati, St. Louis, Detroit, Buffalo, and New York, Germans weregathered together in groups large enough to mantain their ownlanguage and a cultural traditions for a considerable lengh of time.

German had also their own schools, and they maintained theirchurch and fraternal organizations. After the First World War, theGerman still formed the largest body of nonEnglish-sepeaking stockin the United States, with the possible exception of Spanish-sepeaking Chicanos, Puerto Ricans, and Cubans.

Though dying out more rapidly now than in former times, it isstill spoken by about 25% of the inhabitants of Lehigh, Lebanon, andBerks counties in Pennsylvania, and understood by 60 to 65 per cent.


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LEXICAL ADOPTIONS, BORROWINGS,ETYMOLOGIES.

In general, the German borrowings came into English duringthe nieteenth century. Noodle, first cited by the Dictionary of

American English in 1812, and Sauerkraut, in 1813, seem to havebeen used in England earlier, thats a reason to believe that theAmerican use of these words represents an independent borrowing.Kris Kringle in 1830, loaferin 1835,poker in 1836, and ouch in 1839,must have come from Pennsylvania or its derivate settlements.

There is a perseverance on food terms, and words reflectingpleasant but commonplace social contacts. Even such commonplacesof presentday American life aspretzel, hamburger, and frankfurter,do not appear until 1874, 1884, and 1899, repectively.

In general, German borrowings have been nouns. The loanwords are about fifty in number, but again is the difficulty of knowingwhat to include and what to omit. Is turnverein obssolescent, howabout Turners, or Turner Hall, which may linger on somewhat moretenaciously?.

Several German words that were a part of the every dayvocabulary during the World War II, have been ommited becausethey were equally or more widely used in England. Blitzkrieg(lightning warfare), and its shortened form Blitz; Flak(anti-aircraftguns or the fire therefrom); Luftwaffe (Air Force); Panzer(armored division), and Gestapo (secret police) have dissapeared

along with German military might.About the etymologies, we have to observe these intejections:

nix, ouch, phooey(some of them are Yiddish) come from theGerman, and it has been assumed that hurrah was an earlyimportation from the German, as well. Another probles is that ifrainworm, cookbook, and back countryare translations ofRegenwurm, Kockbuch, and Hinterland, repectively.

CHANGES IN MEANIG, PRONUNCIATION,AND/OR SPELLING.

There is a large number of compound names made with thesuffixes -fest and -burger. The first oneappears in some colloquialwords, such as: gabfest, talkfest, swatfest, and slugfest. The secondone is the one who has more compound names, like: cheeseburgers,chickenburgers, turkeyburgers, lamburgers, riceburgers, fishburgers,shrimburgers, pizzaburgers, ham-and-egg burgers, ect...

The changes in pronunciation are not so clear, but it is true thatGerman words represent a difficulty in pronunciation, as they havesounds that Engilsh doesnt have, such as [oe] , [y] ,( that

are the same as the French ones) and its possible that they tendedto simplify them.


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CONCLUSION/PERSONALOPINION

Reading the article, Ive realized that theres a large number offoreing words, from several nationalities, but I wonder why, if therewere so many languages altogether, the English language were atthe end the most important one, and the most spokend, moreoverwhen the German is still spoken by so many people.I supose that ithas to do very much with the power, the politic power, because if itwere because of the number of people that speak a language, it maywouldnt have been english the most important.

Its also important, the way a language developes, becauseIcant imagine how a word or words can become so popular to beadopted by a language,I supose that its because in the New Worldthere were many new things and it had to be called in any way.Whatever it is,I think that its something beatiful to create a languagewith several languages ( well, they didnt created it, but in somekind of way, its a different language, although its English).

Finally, I think that this grate phenomenon that was thecolonization of the new world, particulary, The United States, hasbeen undervalued, because theres a genereal opinion that theUnited States has no history or at least a few history, and I thinkthat its as important as the French Revolution, because it was notonly a language mixture, but a culture, society, and ways of thinking

mixture, and it wolud have made from America a better country,because I think that in the variety is the wisdom.


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BIBLIOGRAPHY

ALL THE ADITIONAL INFORMATION HAS BEEN TAKEN FROM

THE ENCARTA 98 ENCYCLOPEDIA

NOTE: ALL THE WORDS MARKED WITH THIS SYMBOL: *, ARESPANISH WORDS, AND I DONT KNOW THE TRANSLATION INENGLISH.


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CONTENTS

CONTENT PAGES

*INDIAN INFLUENCE.........................................................1-2

-HISTORICAL BACKGROUND.................................................1-LEXICAL ADOPTIONS, ETC..................................................1-2


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-CHANGES IN MEANING, ETC................................................2-TOPONYMIES..........................................................................2

*FRENCH INFLUENCE.........................................................3-4

-HISTORICAL BACKGROUND..................................................3-LEXICAL ADOPTIONS,ECT....................................................3-4-CHANGES IN MEANING, ETC.................................................4-TOPONYMIES...........................................................................4

*DUTCH INFLUENCE..........................................................5-6

-HISTORICAL BACKGROUND..................................................5-LEXICAL ADOPTIONS,ETC......................................................5-CHANGES IN MEANING,ETC................................................5-6

-TOPONYMIES...........................................................................6

*GERMAN INFLUENCE.......................................................6-7

-HISTORICAL BACKGROUND..................................................6-LEXICAL ADOPTIONS,ETC....................................................6-7-CHANGES IN MEANING,ETC..................................................7

*CONCLUSION......................................................................8

*BIBLIOGRAPHY....................................................................9

*ILLUSTRATIONS.............................................................10-11-12

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