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学校编码：10384 密级

学号：30420141154545

硕士学位论文

城市化及其对沿海城市雅加达的社会生态可

持续性的影响评估

Assessing Urbanization and Its Impact on Social-Ecological

Sustainability of Coastal Urban Jakarta, Indonesia

Imanda Hikmat Pradana

指导教师姓名：薛雄志教授专业名称：海洋事务论文提交日期：2016 年 5月论文答辩时间：2016 年 5月

2016 年 5 月

城市

化及其对

沿海城

市雅加

达的社会生

态可

持续性的

影响评估

Imanda Hi

kmatPradana

指导教

师薛雄

志厦门

大学

厦门大学博硕士论文摘要库

ii

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i

Table of Contents

Table of Contents ................................................................................................................i

List of Tables..................................................................................................................... iii

List of Figures....................................................................................................................iv

Abbreviation .......................................................................................................................v

摘要..................................................................................................................................vii

Abstract........................................................................................................................... viii

Chapter 1 Introduction..................................................................................1

1.1 Research Background...............................................................................................................1

1.2 Research Area ............................................................................................................................3

1.3 Research Objectives .................................................................................................................5

1.4 Research Significance ..............................................................................................................6

1.5 Thesis Framework .....................................................................................................................6

Chapter 2 Addressing the Impact of Urbanization towards Complex

Coastal Urban Social-Ecological System.....................................................8

2.1 Overview of Social-Ecological System ................................................................................8

2.1.1 Coastal Social-Ecological System .....................................................................11

2.1.2 Urban Social-Ecological System .......................................................................12

2.2 Overview of Urbanization in Jakarta ..................................................................................14

2.2.1 Jabodetabek: Result of Urbanization Spillover..................................................16

2.2.2 Urbanization Impacts toward Coastal Urban Jakarta.........................................17

2.3 Addressing Urbanization Impact Using Modified DPSIR Coupled with

Social-Ecological Concept ...........................................................................................................19

2.3.1 Data Collection & Analysis ...............................................................................21

2.4 Result of DPSIR Analysis .....................................................................................................21


ii

2.4.1 Driver .................................................................................................................21

2.4.2 Pressure ..............................................................................................................27

2.4.3 State....................................................................................................................32

2.4.4 Impact ................................................................................................................34

2.4.5 Response ............................................................................................................37

2.5 Conclusion ................................................................................................................................41

Chapter 3 Assessing Social-Ecological Sustainability Trends in Coastal

Urban Jakarta ..............................................................................................42

3.1 Introduction: Overview of Sustainable Development .....................................................42

3.1.1 Measuring Sustainability ...................................................................................43

3.2 Assessing Social-Ecological Sustainability Trends Using Composite Indicators .....44

3.2.1 Composite Indicators .........................................................................................44

3.2.2 Determining Indicators and Sub-Indicators .......................................................44

3.2.3 Normalisation.....................................................................................................45

3.2.4 Weighting ...........................................................................................................46

3.2.5 Aggregation........................................................................................................47

3.3 Result and Discussion ............................................................................................................48

3.3.1 Ecological Sustainability Trends........................................................................48

3.3.2 Social Sustainability Trends...............................................................................52

3.3.3 Social-Ecological Causal Relationship Based on DPSIR..................................55

3.4 Conclusion ................................................................................................................................58

Chapter 4 Conclusion and Recommendation............................................60

4.1 Conclusion ................................................................................................................................60

4.2 Recommendation.....................................................................................................................61

References .........................................................................................................................63

Acknowledgments ............................................................................................................78

Appendix...........................................................................................................................79


iii

List of Tables

Table 3-1 Social & Ecological Indicators and Sub-Indicators...........................................46

Table 3-2 Social & Ecological Indicators and Sub-Indicators Weight ..............................48


iv

List of Figures

Fig. 1-1 Map of Jakarta ........................................................................................................4

Fig. 1-2 Population and GDP Per Capita Growth of Jakarta ...............................................4

Fig. 1-3 Research Framework..............................................................................................7

Fig. 2-1 Social-Ecological System Concept ........................................................................9

Fig. 2-2 Modified DPSIR Model Coupled with Social-Ecological Concept.....................20

Fig. 2-3 Social-Ecological System in Jakarta Using Modified DPSIR .............................22

Fig. 2-4 Development in Jakarta from 1972-2005.............................................................25

Fig. 2-5 Number of Vehicles in Jakarta from 2001-2014 ..................................................26

Fig. 2-6 Suitability Area for Fishing in Jakarta Bay in (a) 1998 and (b) 2004 ..................34

Fig. 2-7 A Resident is Hand-pumping Groundwater in a Public Bathing Near Ciliwung

River...................................................................................................................................36

Fig. 3-1 Ecological Sustainability Trend (Pressure) ..........................................................50

Fig. 3-2 Ecological Sustainability Trend (State) ................................................................51

Fig. 3-3 Social Sustainability Trend (Driver) ....................................................................54

Fig. 3-4 Social Sustainability Trend (Impact)....................................................................55

Fig. 3-5 Aggregated Social-Ecological Sustainability Trend.............................................56

Fig. 3-6 Social-Ecological Relationship Based on DPSIR for (a) Driver towards Pressure;

(b) Pressure towards State; (c) State towards Impact.........................................................57


v

Abbreviation

ADB : Asian Development Bank

BAPPENAS : Badan Perencanaan Pembangunan National (National Development

Planning Agency)

BNBP : Badan Nasional Penanggulangan Bencana (Provincial Disaster

Management Agency)

BOD : Biological Oxygen Demand

BPS : Badan Pusat Statistik (Statistics Indonesia)

CDI : City Development Index

CO : Carbon Monoxide

DHF : Dengue Hemorrhagic Fever

DKI : Daerah Khusus Ibukota (Special Capital Region)

DPSIR : Driver-Pressure-State-Impact-Response

DPSWR : Driver-Pressure-State-Welfare-Response

EEA : European Environment Agency

EF : Ecological Footprint

EPI : Environmental Performance Index

ESI : Environmental Sustainability Index

EVI : Environmental Vulnerability Index

EW : Equal Weighting

FA : Factor Analysis

GDP : Gross Domestic Product

GPI : Genuine Progress Indicator

HABITAT : The United Nations Human Settlements Programme

HDI : Human Development Index

ICZM : Integrated Coastal Zone Management

ISEW : Index of Sustainable Economic Welfare

JEDI : Jakarta Emergency Dredging Initiative


vi

JUTPI : Jabodetabek Urban Transportation Policy Integration

LPI : Living Planet Index

NCICD : National Capital Integrated Coastal Development

NGO : Non-Governmental Organization

NO2 : Nitrogen Dioxide

OECD : Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development

PALYJA : PT PAM Lyonnaise Jaya

PCA : Principal Component Analysis

PROKASIH : Program Kali Bersih (Clean River Program)

SES : Social-Ecological System

SLHD : Status Lingkungan Hidup Daerah (Regional Environmental Status)

SO2 : Sulphur Dioxide

UNCED : United Nations Conference on Environment and Development

UN : United Nations

UNESCO : United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization

WWF : World Wildlife Fund


vii

摘要

本研究采用 “ 驱动力 — 压力 — 状态 — 影响 — 响应 ”

Driving-Pressure-State-Impact-Response(DPSIR)的概念方法来识别复杂的社会

生态系统之间的关系在沿海城市雅加达城市化过程中产生的影响。此外，提出了基

于 DPSIR 的复合指标，用来分析评估在过去十年(2005-2014)的可持续发展趋势。结

果表明，驱动力包括地下水过度开采、贫困、土地利用的变化、过度开发和过量的

交通，这些都给周围的环境带来巨大的压力，并且对社会福祉产生了影响。可持续

性可以划分为 5 个等级，分别是：差很，差，中等，好，很好。基于复合指标的评

估表明，从 2005 年到 2014 年社会和生态方面显示出轻微的下降趋势，并且可以被

认为是“很差”的可持续性水平。社会方面的价值在 2005 年是 0.7687，在 2014 年

下降到 0.2687，可持续性水平从“好”下降到“很差”。生态方面，在开始的 2005

年的价值是 0.7357，这时的等级是“好”，但是到 2014 年下降到 0.3221，被认为

是“很差”。进一步的测试显示，在社会-生态系统中，DPSIR 模型的每个变量彼此

都存在正相关关系。结果表明，越来越大的城市化的压力对环境和社会福祉都产生

了不利的影响。研究结果可以为决策者提供参考，用于缓解城市化对雅加达造成的

负面影响，同时作为一种长期的解决方案来处理引起高城市化率的驱动因素。

关键词：DPSIR；复合指标；社会-生态系统；可持续性；雅加达；城市化


viii

Abstract

This study adopted the concept of Driving-Pressure-State-Impact-Response (DPSIR)

approach to identify the relationship of complex social-ecological system in a coastal

urban setting of Jakarta as an impact of urbanization. Furthermore, a composite indicators

was proposed based on DPSIR analysis to assess the sustainability trends within the last

decade (2005-2014). Results show that driving forces include excess groundwater

extraction, poverty, land-use change, excess development, and excess transportation put

significant pressures to the surrounding environment and have an impact to social

well-being. The sustainability level is determined by five different levels (bad, poor,

medium, good, excellent). Assessment based on composite indicators suggests that social

and ecological aspect show a decreasing trend from 2005 to 2014 and can be considered

as ‘poor’ sustainability level. The social aspect stands at the value of 0.7687 in 2005 and

decreased to 0.2687 in 2014, from ‘good’ sustainability to ‘poor’ sustainability. For

ecological aspect, at the start of 2005 the value was 0.7357 which is ‘good’ but decreased

to 0.3221 in 2014 which is considered ‘poor’. Further test revealed that each variable of

DPSIR has positive correlation with one another within the social-ecological relationship.

The results indicate that increasing urbanization has put disadvantages both to

environment and also social well-being. The results can be taken as considerations for

decision-makers to look for solutions that will ease the negative impacts of urbanization

in Jakarta, with more focus on the long-term solutions to address main driving factors

causing high urbanization rate.

Key Words: DPSIR, Composite Indicators, Social-Ecological System, Sustainability,

Jakarta, Urbanization


1

Chapter 1 Introduction

1.1 Research Background

The lure of better economic condition and better life have pushed people to migrate

into cities, hence the term urbanization. Since then, its rapid development has created a

phenomena in which cities becomes more crowded than ever before. Today over half the

world’s population resides in urban area. A significant fraction (9.9%) of the world’s

population lives in megacities, usually defined as cities or urban agglomerations

(including so-called larger urban zones) with more than 10 million inhabitants, and

predicted to reach 13.6% by 2025 (UN, 2012). Geographically speaking, this urbanization

process has also long been associated with coastal areas, in which 67% of all megacities

are located at the coast and 80% had coastal influence (Von Glasow et al., 2013). Coastal

areas provide range of direct benefits for society such as food and shelter provision,

pollutant filter, and nursery grounds for a wide variety of organisms. It also provide

critical inputs for industry, including water and space for shipping and ports;

opportunities for recreational activities such as fishing and diving; and other raw

materials including salt and sand (Creel, 2003).

The resulting developments of these megacities by urbanization has resulted in the

increasing income for the people as they climb the socio-economic ladder to the

middle-class. The success stories of people by moving into cities have resulted in cities

becoming more crowded as thousands of migrants move into cities everyday. While

urbanization has its strengths such as promoting economic development and having

higher productivity, it also has drawbacks, most notably towards the environment,

especially in coastal areas (Krank et al., 2009).

Urbanization has led to degradation of environmental quality especially the quality of

water, air and noise. In many coastal areas, rapid population growth and all the activities

associated with it can degrade coastal and marine ecosystems. A number of worrying

trends are already visible. In some areas, heavy use of fisheries has reduced endemic

coastal fish stocks from 10% to 30% of the supply that existed 30 years ago. Half of the



2

world’s wetlands disappeared in the 20th century, also 50% of all mangroves, and nearly

60% of the world’s coral reefs are seriously degraded by human activities (Creel, 2003).

Most do not realize that by destroying the ecosystem, they are also destroying the

ecological cycle that sustain their life. This human-environment relationship can be

explained as a Social-Ecological System (SES) (Ostrom, 2009), a system where social

system interacting with and depending on an ecological substrate and whose survival

depends, among others, on its interrelations with the system of natural resources.

However, this social-ecological system is usually studied where a social system is directly

linked to natural resources. Therefore references for social-ecological system in cities

–where most of its inhabitants do not directly relate to its surrounding natural resources–

are limited.

Managing urbanization pressures in coastal cities is difficult because those regions

encompass many physical, social and regulatory divisions. In addition, multiple

competing economic sectors, including tourism, fishing, agriculture, aquaculture, forestry,

manu-facturing, oil and gas extraction, marine transportation, and real estate development

have interests in coastal zones. Governments usually manage each sector separately, if at

all. Consequently, many coastal nations have experienced rapid uncontrolled development

along their coastlines. If it continues, then eventually natural resources will be depleted

and it will be impossible to sustain future generations (Creel, 2003).

It was the 1987 Brundtland Report that popularized the term ‘Sustainable

Development’ as “development that meets the needs of the present without compromising

the ability of future generations to meet their own needs” (UN, 1987). It changed the

interpretation of the word development, and helped scientists and practitioners to

understand not only the environmental impacts but also the social and economic effects of

projects as the human race interacts with its surroundings. Society, economy and the

environment, as the three pillars of sustainability, pose three characteristics: independency,

inter-relation/inter-connection, and equality. Based on those characteristics, an alternative

definition for sustainable development is stated as the path to balance social, economic,

and environmental needs (Poveda & Lipsett, 2011).



3

Progress has been made in sustainability assessment. Finding the appropriate

assessment instrument is critical to match theory with practice, and to have successful

outcomes in improving sustainability. Although the existing mechanisms for assessment

offer useful alternatives for academics and practitioners, clear answers for questions

remain to be found regarding what measures are important and how they can be

quantified, especially for social and economic dimenstions (Poveda & Lipsett, 2011).

Currently, there are various assessment tools to measure sustainability, depending on the

situation and condition of the objectives.

1.2 Research Area

Jakarta, the capital of Indonesia, is located in the northwest of the Java island at the

Java Sea coastline. Even though the city, also known as DKI (Daerah Khusus Ibukota –

Special Capital Region) Jakarta, accommodated just about 9.9 million inhabitants, the

Jakarta metropolitan region Jabodetabek (Jakarta-Bogor-Depok-Tangerang-Bekasi) is

estimated to house 27.95 million people (Jakarta in Figures, 2011). The core of Jakarta is

composed of five municipalities, namely North Jakarta, East Jakarta, South Jakarta, West

Jakarta and Central Jakarta. (Fig. 1-1).

This coastal megacity can be classified as a second stage megacity according to the

categories proposed by the Asian Development Bank (ADB), and shows steady increase

of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) over the years since the 1997 Asian financial crisis.

Housing significant industries like textiles, electrical equipment, cement, plastics, metal

and glass products, transport equipment, printing, publishing, an most notably finance

industry have made Jakarta an attractive option for job seekers (Krank et al., 2009). The

fast growth of economy has not only entailed a high GDP growth rate, but also

accelerated high migration rates, urban sprawl, a shortfall of the urban infrastructure and

further stress of the ecological environment. The demographic and GDP growth of Jakarta

can be seen in Fig. 1-2.



4

Fig. 1-1 Map of Jakarta

(source: Jakarta in Figures, 2014)

Figure 1-2. Population and GDP Per Capita Growth of Jakarta

(source: Jakarta in Figures, 2005-2014)



5

Jakarta is currently experiencing various problems regarding its coastal location,

namely: coastal littering, water pollution, saltwater instrusion, land subsidence, seafood

contamination and the loss of habitat for marine organisms. Other chronic landward

problems such as deforestation that causes flooding, excessive use of fertilizer that

causes eutrophication, and high air pollution due to congested roads also worsen the

situtation as well. The Jakarta Bay has become a huge waste dump and therefore put

tremendous pressure for nature to compensate excessive human activities.

An example is the 13 rivers that intersect the city causes annual flooding. Widespread

flooding ocurred in 1996, 2002 and 2007, inundating up to 40% of the city. Increasing

population pressure and soil subsidence (10 cm/year or more) of areas already under

mean sea level lead to an autonomous increase of flood risk. Additionally, all the rivers

in Jakarta relatively are heavily polluted as they consistently show high Biological

Oxygen Demand (BOD) readings. The sources of these BOD in Jakarta’s River system

originate from industrial and other waste water, solid waste, and domestic sewage (Apip

et al., 2015). These polluted water will eventually end up in Jakarta Bay, degrading the

coastal environment. Without proper plans, and coordination and actions for coastal

environmental management, Jakarta will have difficulties to sustain for the future.

1.3 Research Objectives

Based on the background information that was collected from various sources, it is

indicated that over the years the city of Jakarta is undergoing changes in terms of

economic, social and ecological aspects. These changes are supposedly meant to occur

in a sustainable way, in which one aspect should not be ignored for the growth of other

aspects. In order to achieve a sustainable coastal urban development, it is imperative to

plan and monitor closely the causal relationship of social ecological system, apart from

economic development. It is for these reasons that prompted the following research

objectives:

i. To identify social ecological relationship and indicators of coastal urban area as

impacts of urbanization using a modified coupled framework of DPSIR


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