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MOTIVATIONTHE WHYS OF BEHAVIOUR
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Motivation Definition:
That which gives the impetus to behaviour by
arousing, sustaining and directing it towards thesuccessful attainment of goals
So, motivation:
energises people to act
moves you from a resting state to an active state directs behaviour & organises it towards a
particular goal-state
maintains behaviour until the goal is achieved
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Biological Explanations Where does the energy to engage in behaviourcome from?
Instincts and motivation:
Instincts are automatic, involuntary and unlearnedpatterns of behaviour triggered by the presence ofparticular stimuli
For example babies are born with a unique ability thatallows them to survive: they are born with the instinctto cry
Buss (1999) suggested that the desire to pass on ourgenes may provide the motivational forces for suchthings as love, romantic relationships, attraction and
marriage
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Drive Theory
Based on the concept of our bodys homeostasis
Homeostasis is the natural tendency to keep the
body in a state of equilibrium Clark Hull (1943) suggested that physiological
disruptions to homeostasis produce drives(internal tensions that motivate an organism to
engage in behaviour to reduce this tension) Drawbacks: dieting for example flies in the face
of the drive to eat, while taking a trip on a roller-coaster runs contrary to the drive for safety
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Arousal Theory (Hebb, 1955) A third biologically based theory of motivation
maintains that people are motivated to act inways that keep them at their optimum levels ofarousal
Optimum level is obviously different for differentpeople
So motivation to behave is induced by individualsets of positive and negative reinforcers in termsof maintaining this optimum level of arousal
We learn what keeps our own arousal levels atthe optimum level
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Criticisms of Biological Approaches Biological theories fail to take into account
cognitive influences on what motivates us
Why is it that money can motivate some peoplewhile for others it is not important?
For example, why do some people work as
volunteers for no wages and other people seek
highly paid jobs?
So, there must be something else other than pure
biological energy, that motivates different people
for different reasons
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Cognitive Influences on Motivation The contemporary view of motivation emphasises
the importance of cognitive processes
How important something is to you
How confident you are in your ability to succeed
are two cognitive factors that will influence
motivation So if passing your driving test is essential in
gaining that ideal job you might become too
stressed and not perform as well
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Incentive Theory of Motivation Incentive theory maintains that external stimuli
motivate behaviour
Individuals are attracted to behaviours that offerpositive incentives and discouraged from thosebehaviours that they associate with negativebehaviours
The value of an incentive is influenced by both
cognitive and biological factors. So drug-takingbehaviour might be motivated by both biologicaladdiction (craving) and cognitive evaluations(taking the drug in the past has made the person
feel relaxed and happy)
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Expectancy Theory Based on cognitive processes, and motivation
here is provided by our thoughts about engaging
in behaviour Expectancies refer to beliefs about how we will
do if we engage in a certain behaviour
So if we expect to do well then we will be more
likely to engage in the behaviour
If we feel that the chance of succeeding is poor
we will be less likely to become involved
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Hunger: the Need to Eat There are a number of social and biological
mechanisms that underlie hunger (the state of wanting
to eat) and satiety (the state of no longer wanting food)
From a biological perspective there are two sets ofsignals that are associated with hunger:
Empty stomachs might increase appetite and produce
hunger pangs and a full stomach usually results in a
decrease in appetite through bloating
Perhaps more precise signals come from the brains
monitoring of blood-borne nutrients such as glucose
(sugar used by body cells), amino acids and fatty acids
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Social Theories of Hunger Appetite is the motivation to seek pleasure from
food
e.g. chocolate cravings If people who crave chocolate are given
substances that have the same chemicalcomposition as chocolate but do not taste like it,
they will go on craving chocolate (Michener &Rozin, 1994)
This suggests that flavour also acts as amotivational force in some kings of eating
Social environments can influence our eating too
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Heckhausens Expectancy-ValueModelFour different types of expectancies influence motivation:
situation-outcome (subjective probability of attaining an
outcome in a specific situation without acting) action-outcome (subjective probability of attaining an
outcome by one's actions)
action-by-situation-outcome (subjective probability thatsituational factors facilitate or impede one's action-outcomeexpectancy)
outcome-consequence (subjective probability of an outcometo be associated with a specific consequence)
Therefore, the motivation to act depends mainly on the
value attached to the consequences of one's behaviour
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Self-Efficacy and Motivation(Bandura) A social cognitive model of motivation focused on the role
of perceptions of efficacy
Bandura defined self-efficacy as: individuals' confidence in
their ability to organise and execute a given course of
action to solve a problem or accomplish a task
He distinguishes between two kinds of expectancy beliefs
Firstly, outcome expectations, which are beliefs that certainbehaviours will lead to certain outcomes
Secondly, efficacy expectations, which are beliefs about
whether one can effectively perform the behaviours necessary
to produce the outcome
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Research Evidence for Self-Efficacy St Charles (2002) reported a significant
correlation between self-reported self efficacyscores of lecturers and their subsequent
teaching performance. Those academics thatreported high self-efficacy in being able toteach were those rated as the best teachers
D'Amico & Cardaci (2003) investigated self-
efficacy and scholastic achievement asmeasured in 151 schoolchildren (mean age13.4 yrs). They reported that all self-efficacyscores were significantly correlated with
scholastic achievement
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Attribution and Motivation Attribution theory proposes that every
individual tries to explain success or failure of
self and others by offering certainattributions
Weiner's attribution theory (1992) identifiedability, effort, task difficulty, and luck as the
most important achievement attributions thatserve to motivate action
He classified these attributions into threefactors: locus of control, stability and
controllability
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This table shows the four attributions that result from a
combination of internal or external locus of control and
whether or not control is possible when faced with a
maths exam
Internal locus External locusofcontrol of control
No control Own natural ability Pure luck (how I am feeling
with maths on the day, if I get a lucky
break with getting the right
questions)
Control The amount of effort Task difficulty (how hard
I put into studying the questions are going to
maths be)
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Goal Theory of Motivation
Goal theories assume that all actions are givenmeaning, direction and purpose by the goals
that individuals seek out. The work on goal theory (Ames, 1992; Urdan &
Maehr, 1995) has differentiated three separatetypes of goals:
1. mastery goals (also called learning goals)2. performance goals (also called ego involvement
goals)
3. social goals
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Goal Theory Continued Other research has suggested the existence of
other goals
Nicholls et al. (1990) defined two major kinds ofmotivationally relevant goal patterns ororientations: ego-involved goals and task-involved goals.
Questions like Will I look intelligent?and Can Ioutperform others?reflect ego-involved goals
In contrast, questions such as How can I do thistask?and What will I learn?reflect task-involved goals
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Self-Development and Motivation
Humanistic theory is perhaps the most well
known theory of motivation. According to this
theory, humans are driven to achieve theirmaximum potential and will always do so unless
obstacles are placed in their way
According to Maslows (1970) hierarchy of
needs we are motivated to seek basic needs
such as food and shelter and move up to higher,
more psychological needs (such as self-
development)
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Maslows Work Continued Maslow's work has led to additional attempts to
develop a grand theory of motivation.
Leonard, Beauvais & Scholl (1995) propose five
factors as the sources of motivation:1. Instrumental Motivation (rewards and punishers)
2. Intrinsic Process Motivation (enjoyment, fun)
3. Goal Internalisation (values and goals)
4. Internal Self-Concept-based Motivation
5. External Self-Concept-based Motivation
Model has two sources of motivation internally
driven and externally driven motivation
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Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation Two kinds of motivational forces:
Those that are internally generated (intrinsic) andthose that are externally generated (extrinsic)
So examples of intrinsic motivation are feeling goodabout doing something (ego boosts), gainingknowledge or competence as a result of engaging ina behaviour
In contrast, examples of extrinsic motivationinclude money, materialistic gains (new car, biggeroffice, more friends) and basically engaging in atask merely to obtain rewards or avoid
punishments
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Increasing motivation in the classroom using intrinsic and
extrinsic factors: there are a variety of specific actions thatteachers can take to increase motivation on classroom tasks. In
general, these fall into the two categories: intrinsic motivation and
extrinsic motivation
Intrinsic Extrinsic
Explain or show why learning a Provide clear expectationsparticular content or skill is important Give corrective feedback
Create and/or maintain curiosity Provide valuable rewards
and interest Make rewards available
Provide a variety of activities and
sensory stimulations, reading, stories,video
Provide games and simulations
Set clear goals for learning
Relate learning to student needs and
examples from their daily lives
Help student develop plan of action
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Sexual Motivation Distinction between hunger/thirst and sexual
motivation:
When a hungry or thirsty animal ingests a
sufficient quantity of food or water, and thisrestoration of energy or fluid returns the organismto a state of homeostatic balance. Sexual activity,however, depletes the organism's energy stores and
the sex drive is satiated only when fatigue andexhaustion override it
Sexual motivation is largely elicited byenvironmental cues, whereas hunger and thirst
largely reflect internal changes
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Sexual Motivation Continued Despite the fact that sexual behaviour in humans is
controlled and driven by our brain, at the same timeit is strongly influenced by learned experience from
interaction with our environment So that social, ethnic and cultural experienceregulates such things as our sexual preference andhabits
Learning must be an important factor in sexual
motivation as what is considered normal andabnormal in human sexual behaviour is highlyvariable across cultures and times
Sexual motivation is therefore a unique blend of
physiological and psychological stimulation
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Sensation Seeking Sensation seeking is the motivation to seek
out stimulation and novelty
Sensation seekers seem less reactive tostimulation and therefore require strongerlevels of it than low sensation seekers(Zuckerman, 1991)
So people who have high sensation seekingtend to be motivated to engage in more riskybehaviour, more high-risk jobs (fire-fighting,pilots) and more extreme sports (Jack &Ronan, 1998)
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Achievement Motivation
The need for achievement is the desire toaccomplish tasks/goals and excel (McClelland et al.,1953; Atkinson, 1981)
There may be two reasons people strive to succeed:motivation for success and fear of failure
The motive of success reflects intrinsic motivationalforces, the desire to master skills or goals
Fear of failure produces motivation that drives us to
outperform peers. Such motivation is not alwaysconducive to better performance
It has been shown that fear of failure seems to developin children whose parents take for granted success but
punish failure (Weiner, 1992)