cartografía teórica

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The Development of Contemporary

heoretical Cartography

3 0

rras

.

Tositomo KANAKUBO*

Abstract The seeds of modern-day theoretical cartography sprouted in the latter

alf of the nineteenth century. Since then it has passed through three developing

stages. Among them, theoretical cartography of the post-World War Two era has

several qualities that have never been seen before. The author has attempted to

relate the process of the development of contemporary theoretical cartography by

collecting literature on theoretical cartography from as many countries as possible.

Upon classifying the literature, he has analyzed the presentation, discussion, develop-

ment, and consolidation of each theory. Furthermore, the author intends to explore

the directions in which the new cartography' advocated by contemporary cartogra-

phy is headed.

he latter half of the nineteenth century was the period in which theoretical

cartography began to flourish. The beginning of the twentieth century to the pre-

War era saw the German geographic world grasp international power over cartogra-

phy. It was in this time period that cartography began its fight to establish its

theoretical side as an independent science.

he post-War cartography thrived in the Fifties to the beginning of the Sixties,

and cartographic associations from all over the world were first united in the form of

the ICA. The ICA became an international forum for the presentation of theories

and the exchange of news and technological advances.

any scholars persevered in establishing a theoretical system of cartography as

a science in the early half of the nineteen-sixties. The cartographic communication

theory was developed, and there were attempts to link it to the information theory.

In addition there were attempts to introduce semiology, modelling theory, and cogni-

tion theory to cartography.

he Commission on Cartographic Information organized in the ICA and became

a forum for international discusson due to the aggressive efforts of chairman Ratajski.

Especially in the early half of the nineteen-seventies, numerous cartographers

attempted to construct a model of the transmission of cartographic information.

alichtchev who advocated the modelling theory, criticized the cartographic

communication theory formed mainly by Ratajski and Morrison. To counter it,

Morrison pointed out faults in Salichtchev's explanation and, applying the technique

of set theory, explained the structure of cartographic communication to prove his

point. This debate sparked many analysis of the communication theory and the

epistemological theory of cartography, and the early half of the nineteen-seventies

served as period in which such debates flourished.

he ICA's Commission on Thematic Cartography was kept busy in the early

THE SCIENCE REPORTS OF THE TOHOKU UNIVERSITY, 7TH

Vol. 40 No. 1, June 1990. 1-19.

* Dr

. Sc., Managing Director, The Japan Map Center, Tokyo.

SERIES (GEOGRAPHY)


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2

T. KANAKUBO

Seventies dealing with the possibilities of the standardization of international

hematic maps. Generally speaking, cartographers of socialist countries were quite

greeable to the idea, while cartographers of the capitalistic countries tended to be

keptical.

The late Seventies and early Eighties were the era in which movements to

ystematize theoretical cartography became conspicuous. Although there were

any essays presented which expressed the author's own opinion with the history of

ifferent views of a theory, there was also a trend of integrating the various theories.

n addition, geographic and cartographic societies, which until then had enjoyed a

lose relationship, terminated their practice of holding international conferences in

he same place, thereafter slowly growing apart.

he amazing progress made in computer technology has also greatly influenced

artography. The concepts of cartogrpahy has changed, and there have been calls

or altering the definition of cartography. The need to organize genealogically the

oncepts and methodology of cartography has arisen. At the same time, preparation

or the systematization of the theoretical angle has been hastened due to the develop-

ent of the new cartography. All these advancements have made essential the

-'cooperation of cartographers from all countries.

ey words : theoreticalcartography,historical review,activities of the ICA

,inter-

r ,-W.---

national debate, new cartography

1 Preface

It is said that the history of maps is as old as that of mankind. However, the

development of cartography as a science has been a relatively new occurrence,

especially in the area involving theoretical cartography. There are several reasons

for its late development. One is that research in cartography has always tended to

focus more upon technical or technological factors. Another reason is that attention

was turned more toward the esthetic or artistic elements. Still another reason is that

in most countries, surveying and mapping was often the responsibility of the military

,

which was more concerned with the military value of maps. Scientific research of

cartography, therefore, was left as an afterthought.

he seeds of modern-day theoretical cartography sprouted in the latter-half of the

nineteenth century. Since then it has passed through three developing stages

. In the

first stage, priority was given to the technical or practical aspects of mapmaking ;

mapmaking focused on surveying technology and military topography to suit military

purposes. The pioneers of geography followed with the development of a geographi-

cal research system ; the establishment of cartography as a science is due to their

tremendous efforts. In its third stage, which continues at the present, cartography has

struggled to establish itself as an independent discipline.

heoretical cartography of the post-World War Two era has several qualities

that have never been seen before. There has been much research done on the concept


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The Development of Contemporary Theoretical Cartography

3

of cartography, and many aggressive attempts to integrate or apply the concepts and

theories of related sciences. The establishment of the International Cartographic

Association (ICA) has led to international discussion of the theoretical problems of

cartography. Developing new fields growing from advancements in computer technol-

ogy have necessitated the construction of related new theories. One problem of

contemporary theoretical cartogrpahy is that of systematically and concretely clarify-

ing these characteristics.

he author has attempted to relate the process of the development of contempo-

rary theoretical cartography by collecting literature on theoretical cartography from

as many countries as possible. Upon classifying the literature by author and by era

in which it was written, he has analyzed the presentation, discussion, development, and

consolidation of each theory. Furthermore, the author intends to explore the direc-

tions in which the new cartography advocated by contemporary cartography is

headed.

2 Theoretical cartography and its genealogy

ompared to the pre-War era, the post-World War Two era has seen remarkable

progress in the various fields of cartography. The increase in map usage and the

demand for new types of maps has led to great strides in cartographic technology,

which in turn has elicited a need to educate cartographers. It has also produced

expectations of progress in its establishment as a field of science as well as in its own

areas of research.

he analyses of P.C. Muehrche (1973), A.H. Robinson and others (1976) also of the

United States, and F.J. Ormeling (1972) of the Netherlands pointed out the research

done and progress attained in the theoretical areas, emphasizing this work even more

than recent technological breakthroughs. In addition, E. Arnberger (1970) of Austria

divided the development of contemporary cartography into the following three

eriods :

) the beginning of the latter half of the nineteenth century, when, in the domain

of geography, there was much interest in topographic cartography

) the beginning of the twentieth century to the pre-War era, when cartography

strove to establish itself as an independent field of science, and the main focus shifted

to thematic cartography

) the post-War era, where cartography has established itself as a field of science

in its own right.

artographic research in the first time period, the nineteenth century, was done

with the military in mind, and therefore it focused on surveying technology and

military topography. The tendency was to stress the technical and practical over the


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4

T. KANAKUBO

theoretical. However, geographers' attention was turned toward maps which

influenced progress in geographical research systems. Research in map projection,

relief representation, map color, and construction of various types of atlases was

abound, and efforts to institute cartography as a science continued.

n the second time period, photogrammetry was introduced to mapmaking, and in

addition to topographic maps, attention turned toward thematic maps as well. Maps

were most highly regarded by geographers interested in regional geographic research.

Thus was born the theory for cartographic representation, and there began a natural

trend toward acknowledging maps as a scholarly field. This trend was especially

conspicuous in Germany, where A. Penck, W. Koppen, M. Eckert, and A. Hettner,

among others, did much energetic research. Eckert, in particular, wrote his great

work, Die Kartenwissenschaft, Forschungen and Grundlagen zu einer Kartographie

als Wissenschaft (I-1921, 11-1925), and also presented his thoughts on Map Logic.

n the other hand, advances in the theoretical side of cartography was difficult in

the United States, where practicality took precedence over theory. However, there

appeared such people as E. Raisz, who emphasized the scientific and artistic aspects of

maps, and J.K. Wright, who stressed the disposition as well as the scientific integrity

of the cartographer. These people influenced the progress of post-War cartographic

communication theory.

o summarize, the latter half of the nineteenth century was the period in which

theoretical cartography began to flourish. The beginning of the twentieth century to

the pre-War era saw the German geographic world grasp international power over

cartography. It was in this time period that cartography began its fight to establish

its theoretical side as an independent science.

3 Theoretical cartography in the post-War era

ower over the fieldof cartographywas passed or a time from Germany o the

UnitedStates and England, he victors of the War. There were many enlightening

texts published to be distinguisheds the AmericanA.H.Robinson's The Look of

Maps 1952) nd Elements f Cartography 1953). In these,he discussedhe impor-

tance of visual mpressionn cartographic esiznand the clarityand legibility f maps,

and made a general analysis of the process in which cartographic ommunication

theorieswere devised.

he rebuilding f a newscientific artoy aphywas led by the German heoretical

cartographyof the Fifties,whichbeganwit the definition,lassification,nd systema-

tization of technical erms. At this sa e time, E. mhof of Switzerlanddeclared,

Theoreticalcartography

or scientifi cartography s comprisedof the critical

examination nd development f map , their subjectmatter, their graphic orms and

12 v WC I Ci


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The Development of Contemporary Theoretical Cartography 5

techniques of construction, and the obtaining of standards for the map drawing (1956).

In addition he acknowledged and stressed the esthetical value of maps.

long with the rapid progress made in cartography in the post-War period,

cartography distinguished itself from being merely a constituent of the large field of

geography, and produced the need to create an academy or society dealing solely with

maps. From the nineteen-fifties to the Sixties, several scientific associations related

to cartography were formed throughout the world, and various bulletins were publi-

shed as well. The International Cartographic Association (ICA) was established in

1959 as an international organization of cartographers. The ICA began holding an

International Cartographic Conference about every two years, and various Commis-

sions and Working Groups began aggressive activity. In 1961 the first yearly bulletin,

the International Yearbook of Cartography (IYC) was published. In Japan, the Japan

Cartographers Association (JCA) was established in 1963, the same year that their first

bulletin, Map, was published. Japan joined the ICA in 1964.

o sum up, post-War cartography thrived in the Fifties to the beginning of the

Sixties, and cartographic associations from all over the world were first united in the

form of the ICA. The ICA became an international forum for the presentation of

theories and the exchange of news and technological advances. All in all, it was an

epoch-making period.

4 New movements in theoretical cartography of the Sixties

he first president of the ICA, E. Imhof, also served concurrently as the chief

editor of the IYC. Presenting such papers as Gelande and Karte (1950), Thematis-

che Kartographie (1962), and Kartographische Gelandedarstellung (1972), Imhof

aggressively led the cartographic world. He contributed numerous essays on the

annotation of toponomy, relief representation, and cartographic artistry. One of his

special goals concerned pictorial clarity or readability in relief representation ; draw-

ing a topographical map based on a precise sketch, Imhof emphasized the method of

compressing details and emphasizing essential forms.

he American J.C. Sherman, who penned the first thesis in the first issue of the

IYC, analyzed cartography of the outset of the Sixties. Sherman wrote about the

function of maps, the collection and processing of map resources, and the necessity of

geo-cartographic research done in the area of cartographic representation. He also

regarded maps as a form of communication, and subsequently expounded the useful-

ness of the information theory. In 1962 another American, W. Bunge, wrote Theoret-

ical Geography, in which he classified geography as a field of science with its own

laws. He also introduced the concept of metacartography and encouraged the

development of this new form of mathematical geography.


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T. KANAKUBO

In 1966 E. Arnberger of Austria wrote a compilation of all his research

, Hand-

buch der Thematischen Kartographie, declaring cartography a formal science

. His

disciple, Austrian I. Kretschmer, stated that this approach was not too narrow for the

consolidation of cartography, and would develop methods and rules of cartographic

representation and reproduction. J.S. Keates of England first defined the concept of

cartographic c

ommunication in 1964, proposing that communication through maps

be linked to information theory. That same year, A.A. Moles of France independently

presented his ideas on the relationship between information theory and the transmis-

sion of cartographic information. J. Bertin followed in 1967with Se'rniologie graphi-

que, which opened the way for the processing and transmission of information on

visual language.

. Board of England presented Maps as Models in 1967. He stated that maps

should be visualized not only as representational models of the real world

, but also

as conceptual models containing the essence of some generalization about reality

.

Along with the presentation of his diagram of The Map-Model Cycle

, he examined

the role of maps through use of a generalized communication system

. By recognizing

that maps are a model of reality, and by using them as conceptual models leading to

a greater understanding of the real world, he theorized that maps are assured their

central importance in geographical methodology

.

heoretical cartography in the socialist countries, particularly in the Soviet

Union, developed independently. K.A. Salichtchev concentrated on the development

of methods of cartographic research. He placed much emphasis on the importance of

mentioning various phenomena in papers, as well as the analysis and cognition of such

phenomena. Furthermore, Salichtchev stressed the significance of acquiring new

information about and of understanding the characteristics of such phenomena

, cou-

pled with research and predictions of spatial relationships. He pointed out the

necessity of utilising maps in order for the afore mentioned activities to occur

.

alichtchev advocated the cartographic modelling theory for understanding the

essence and substance of each phenomenon, criticizing Board's modelling theory :

t proceeds from the general theory of information

, leading to a faulty inter-

retation of a number of concepts and processes in cartography. This

roduced contradictions, and in the end led to a very narrow understanding of

aps as models of reality and to an underestimation of their cognitive

ossibilities.... [Board] tends to see maps ... as a repository of facts

resented as far as possible in intelligible form, if need be to the detriment of

etail and accuracy.

n summary, many scholars persevered in establishing a theoretical system of

cartography as a science in the early half of the nineteen-sixties

. The cartographic

communication theory was developed, and there were attempts to link it to the


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information theory. In addition there were attempts to introduce

modelling theory, and cognition theory to cartography.

semiology, the

5 The Organization of Commissions in the International Cartographic Association

ICA) and their activities

long with the presentation of his thesis, Cartographic Information a funda-

mental concept and term in modern cartography, in which he exhibited a model

diagram concerned with cartographic communication, A. Kola triS-rof Czechoslovakia

also proposed the establishment of a Commission on Cartographic Information to

the ICA at the Fourth International Cartographic Conference held in New Delhi in

1968. The proposal was accepted and a working group was formed with Kola 'any

designated as chairman and was assigned the task of defining the terms cartographic

information and cartographic communication. A Commission on Communication

in Cartography was organized in 1972 at a general meeting at the Sixth International

Cartographic Conference, held in Ottawa that year. This commission served as a

forum for international discussion of theoretical cartography.

. Ratajski of Poland was keenly interested in the transmission process of carto-

graphic information and presented The Research Structure of Theoretical Cartogra-

phy in 1972, proposing the technical term cartology as well as exhibiting a graphic

model of cartographic communication. He applied the mathematical information

theory to construct his theory, and tried to clarify the effects of transmission and

explain the loss of information.

he working group of the ICA now established, cartographers from various

countries began to show interest in cartographic communication, and there were many

lively debates taking place at the international level. Many people like C. Koeman of

the Netherlands (1971), P.C. Muehrcke of the United States (1969, 1970), J.C. Barth-

olomew of England (1972), and U. Freitag (1971) and G. Hake (1973) of West Germany

discussed the communicative function of maps and tried to make a model of the

communication process.

herefore, it was during this time that the ICA's Commission on Cartographic

Information, organized in answer to a proposal made by Kola en9, became a more

animated forum for international discussion due to the aggressive efforts of chairman

Ratajski. Especially in the early half of the nineteen-seventies, numerous cartogra-

phers attempted to construct a model of the transmission of cartographic information.


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T. KANAKUBO

6 International debates on cartographic communication criticisms and develop-

ent

The idea that the role of maps was to communicate, and that the objective of

cartography was to verify and complete the communication process, became quite

popular among the members of the ICA Commission. Presented at the Sixth Interna-

tional Cartographic Conference in 1972 in Canada were L. Ratajski's The Research

Structure of Theoretical Cartography and American J.L. Morrison's Changing

Philosophical Technical Aspects of Thematic Cartography. However, K.A.

Salichtchev of the Soviet Union criticized these presentations :

he main tendencies in the development of contemporary cartography the

ntroduction of automation....... naturally are creating an urge to rethink

artography's subject and method. It seems to me that the very successes of

utomated cartography, which have stemmed partly from the application of

athematical information theory for the solution of certain cartographic

roblems, have provided a basis for a number of scientists again advancing

iews of cartography as an information-technical discipline.

orrison presented A Theoretical Framework for Cartographic Generalization

with Emphasis on the Process of Symbolization in 1974, in which he interpreted

cartography to be a science of communication. Using the process of cartographic

generalization as an example, he assumed that it was the sum of certain structural

changes occurring in the duration of ime : simplification, classification, symbolization,

and induction. Then, applying the technique of set theory to analyze the results, he

tried to extract the foundation of his communication theory from it. This paper was

seen as the deductive extension of his 1972 paper, and was a response to Salichtchev'

s comments.

A.H. Robinson and B.B. Petchenik of the United States presented The Map as a

Communication System in 1975. In this paper they introduced the history of the

development of the cartographic communication theory and analyzed the relationship

between the construction and perception of maps of the environment

, using Venn

diagrams. In addition, as future topics for discussion, they suggested among other

things the assessment of information and measurement of the quantity of information

,

and the perception of the white areas on maps.

n 1976 J.L. Morrison introduced his paper, The Science of Cartography and its

Essential Processes, his rebuttal of Salichtchev's criticisms as well as a report on his

advancements in cartographic communication. He stated that cartographic commu-

nication was not a simple, one-way transmission of information from cartographer to

map reader, but was communication between individual cognitive realms

, an intricate

and advanced transmission of information dependent upon the successful use of lan-


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9

guage by the cartographic scientist, who must consider the map reader's abilities to

perform map reading tasks.

n 1975 B.B. Petchenik presented Cognition in Cartography, which included a

semantic analysis of maps. She further declared that cartographers should become

more familiar with basic cognitive research being conducted by psychologists, and that

epistemological cartography should be the main focus of cartography.

s mentioned previously, Salichtchev, who advocated the modelling theory based

on the theory of epistemological materialistic dialectics, stated that the cartographic

communication theory formed mainly by Ratajski and Morrison came partly from the

application of mathematical information theory, and severely criticized that it would

limit the role of cartography to an information-technical discipline. To counter

Salichtchev's comments, Morrison pointed out faults in Salichtchev's explanation and,

applying the technique of set theory, explained the structure of cartographic communi-

cation to prove his point. This debate sparked many analyses of the communication

theory and the epistemological theory of cartography, and the early half of the

nineteen-seventies served as a period in which such debates flourished.

7 The Standardization of thematic maps

he ICA's Commission on Thematic Cartography was organized in 1968, con-

centrating on intensifying the expansion of international research of thematic cartog-

raphy and examining the possibility of standardizing international thematic maps.

However, as the scope of the problems was too broad and there were discrepancies in

the aims of each country, the focus of the commission was narrowed down to the

international standardization of map symbols.

artographers from numerous countries worked on the standardization of

thematic maps in the nineteen-seventies. In the socialist countries, M.I. Nikishov and

A.I. Preobrazhensky (1970) of the Soviet Union and L. Ratajski (1971) of Poland, among

others, attempted to standardize conventional signs of economic maps to be drawn in

the future. F. Joly (1971) of France stated that a distinction should be made between

the fields in which standardization would and would not be desirable. E. Lehmann

(1972) of East Germany accentuated that alterations in the scale of a cartographic

ompilation would bring about changes in the concept of the map as well as changes

in map content and the method of cartographic representation. W. Witt (1972) of

West Germany declared that thematic maps should be classified into two groups based

on their function, and since each group would demand different researching methods,

they should be treated as separate entities. And from their respective standpoints, I.

P. Zarutskaya (1966) of the Soviet Union and E. Spiess (1971) of Switzerland indicated

the importance of the base map of a thematic map.


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10

T. KANAKIJBO

The president of the ICA, A.H. Robinson (1974), analyzed the advantages and

disadvantages of symbol standardization of international thematic maps. He studied

two different systems, one based on the type of geographical phenomena being mapped,

the other on the purpose for which the map is being made, and from his findings then

related the difficulties in the reformation and standardization of international thematic

maps.

Problems of an International Standa

rdization of a Means of Communication

through Cartographic Symbols was presented by E. Arnberger of Austria in 1974.

Arnberger expressed his views about such matters as the preconditions for interna-

tional standardization, the functions of symbols that should be used, and the order of

precedence of graphic elements. Then, from the fact that there were many other

terms that should be first resolved and tht there was a need to do some basic research

on the union of experimental psychology and cartography, he advocated prudence in

international standardization.

n Cartographic Communication Links and a Cartographic Alphabet (1974), K.-

H. Meine of West Germany expressed the need for an expansion in knowledge of the

cartographic communication process and the creation of an alphabet for a basic

language of maps, and the semiological application for such an alphabet

.

n these ways, the ICA's Commission on Thematic Cartography was kept busy in

the early Seventies, dealing with the possibilities of the standardization of interna-

tional thematic maps. Generally speaking, cartographers of socialist countries were

quite agreeable to the idea, while cartographers of capitalist countries tended to be

skeptical.

8 The movement towards the systematization of theoretical cartography

fter having been criticized by K.A. Salichtchev, L. Ratajski revised his theory in

1977 in Loss and Gain of Information in Cartographic Communication. In this paper

he not only wrote of the loss of cartographic information in the communication

process, but also mentioned for the first time the acquisition of information. In 1978

he wrote The Main Characteristics of Cartographic Communication as a Part of

Theoretical Cartography, in which he said that the ideological background which

influenced theoretical cartography of that time consisted of the information theory

,

semiology, the modelling theory, metascience, and the cognition theory. He then gave

an overall review of these background elements and their relation to cartography

.

he latter-half of the Seventies saw a good number of papers calling for the

systematization of theoretical cartography, where the author would add his own

opinion to a history of different views of a theory. For example, there were A.H.

Robinson and others' Cartography 1950-2000 (1976), W

. Witt's Theoretische Karto-


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11

graphie ein Beitrag zur Systematik, A.M. Berlyant's Cartographic Research

Method (1977), I. Kretschmer's Theoretical Cartography : Positions and Tasks

(1980), K.A. Salichtchev's commemorative collection of essays, A Way for Develop-

ment of Cartography ( Puti Razvitija Kartografii ) (1975), and E. Arnberger's com-

memorative essay collection, Beitrage zur Theoretischen Kartographie (1977). L.

Guelke's compilation of major papers on theoretical cartography written after those of

M. Eckert, was published in Canada as The Nature of Cartographic Communication

(1977).

As geography and cartography are closely related, the IGU (International Geo-

graphical Union) and the ICA held an international conference at approximately the

same time in the same country as affiliate associations. However, as both groups

became more specialized and changes occurred in their relationship to each other, they

began to drift apart, and in 1980 they held their last cosponsored conference in Tokyo.

. Board of England, as successor to L. Ratajski, became the center of ICA

Commission activity. He sought to compile a bibliography of literature on cartogra-

phic communication and complete a model of cartographic communication as the basic

framework of research. He also completed a genealogical model (1983) of literature

on theoretical cartography, arranging the information by author, year of publication,

and language in which it was written.

.A. Salichtchev presented Idea and Theoretical Problems in Cartography in the

80's (Idei i teoreticheskie Problemi v Kartografii 80-h Godov. ) in 1982. He wrote

about the developmental history of theoretical cartography, with an emphasis on the

international debates of the Seventies and the Eighties. He placed cognitive-oriented

ideas in opposition with formalistic-oriented ideas and placed himself at a standpoint

supporting the former. However, in the chapter entitled Cartographic Communica-

tion : A Theoretical Survey of the compilation Graphic Communication and Design

in Contemporary Cartography, edited by D.R.F. Taylor of Canada and published in

1983, Salichtchev professed a view stressing the communicative function of maps as

well.

To summarize, the late Seventies and early Eighties was the era in which

movements to systematize theoretical cartography became conspicuous. Although

there were many essays presented which expressed the author's own opinion with the

history of different views of a theory, there was also a trend of integrating the various

theories. In addition, geographic and cartographic societies, which until then had

enjoyed a close relationship, terminated their practice of holding international confer-

ences in the same place, thereafter slowly growing apart.


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12

T. KAN AKUBO

9 The development of automated cartography and its effect on theoretical cartog-

aphy

With the advancements in computer technology, automated cartography began to

develop rapidly in the nineteen-sixties and onwards

. Major areas of research includ-

ed the collection of cartographic data, map compilation

, representation of cartogra-

phic information, and the development of a mapping system. Construction of a

cartographic database and preparations for Geographical Information Systems (GIS)

also flourished. The value of conventional maps and automated maps were compara-

tively analyzed as well.

oupled with the development of automated cartography, cartographic works of

a new sort, contradictory to the traditional concept of maps

, were born. The concepts

of a temporary map or nonmap, as opposed to the permanent map (P.D. Rife, 1970), or

a virtual map, as opposed to a real map (H. Moellering

, 1976), were also born, and

therefore the need to reexamine the concept of cartography was also realized

.

rom the end of the Seventies on into the Eighties

, a great many papers and books

on theoretical cartography were presented or published, and a movement toward

systematization came to light. The ICA's Commission on Cartographic Communica-

tion edited a bibliography of literature on theoretical cartography

, then disbanded. In

its place was organized a Working Group on Concepts and Methodology in Cartogra-

phy, and its successor, the Commission on Concepts in Cartography ; these groups

began to arrange systematically various concepts and methodology

.

ue to the progress in computer-assisted cartography

, new potential was discover-

ed in cartography. The ICA formed a new Working Group on Cartographic Definition

to reexamine cartography from a fresh standpoint, or specifically

, to examine the need

to alter the definition of cartography. This topic became the center of debate within

the ICA. Systematic organization of the theoretical angle of cartography

, which is

indispensable to the development of the new cartography

, will be the next step, and

it will require the cooperation of cartographers from all over the world

.

s related above, the amazing progress made in computer technology has also

greatly influenced cartography. The concept of cartography has changed, and there

have been calls for altering the definition of cartography . The need to organize

genealogically the concepts and methodology of cartography has arisen. At the same

time, preparation for the systematization of the theoretical angle has been hastened

due to the development of the new cartography. All these advancements have made

essential the cooperation of cartographers from all countries

.


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13

References

Arnberger E. (1964) Das topographische, graphische, bildstatistische und bildhafte Prinzip in

er Kartographie. Internationales Jahrbuch fur Kartographie, IV.

1966) Handbuch der thematischen Kartographie. Franz Deuticke Wien.

1970) Die Kartographie als Wissenschaft und ihre Beziehungen zur Geographie und

eodasie. Grundsatzfragen der Kartographie. Buchdruckerei Ferdinand Berger &

iihne OHG, Wien.

1974) Problems of an International Standardization of a Means of Communication

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